Dominican Republic, April–June 1965 

On June 6, 1965, Col. Francisco Alberto Caamaño Deñó’s rebel forces suspended negotiations and moved to break free from the noose around their strongholds within Ciudad Nueva. Nine days later, at 0750 hours, they launched the most violent attack against U.S. and the Inter-American Force’s positions. “By 0915hrs they were directing continuous fire at American positions, and at noon they assaulted Brazilian positions with a coordinated use of mortars, bazookas, and tanks.”1 Spearheading the offensive was a handful of captured armored vehicles, which faced Brazilian and U.S. jeep-mounted 106mm recoilless rifles (RRs). U.S. paratroopers used a 106mm RR to knock out an L60 light tank, stalling the attack. It was the bloodiest battle of the intervention, with the rebels suffering a sound defeat and the lost 56 square blocks of territory. By the time it was over, there were between 500 regulars and 325 police officers killed on the Loyalists’ side, and 600 regulars, hundreds of armed civilians and five light tanks destroyed on the Constitutionalists’ side. For its part, the U.S. was to suffer 10 Marines and 13 paratroopers killed and 283 wounded, most of them casualties of sniper fire. 

As it happened, in early 1965 the Dominican Republic sank in a civil war between Loyalists and Constitutionalists, so the U.S. intervened to prevent another Cuba. The U.S. stability operation, later code-named “Powerpack,” took place in three phases between April 30 and May 3, 1965. The plan consisted of landing at San Isidro Airfield (about 10 miles east of Santo Domingo) then advancing 8 miles west to the Ozama River and finally establishing a line of communications to link the airfield with the International Security Zone (INSZ) around the U.S. Embassy thereby separating the two factions. The U.S. acted unilaterally and was nominally neutral, but it backed the Loyalists; however, the intervention took an international turn when the Organization of American States (OAS) authorized the formation of the Fuerza Interamericana de Paz (FIP / IAPF) on May 23, 1965. The FIP was under the command of Brazilian General Hugo Penasco Alvim, heading an 1,130-strong Brazilian Battalion and a Fraternity Battalion with a Brazilian Marine Company, and three other infantry companies from Honduras (250), Paraguay (178) and Nicaragua (164), plus a 25-strong police squad from Costa Rica. However, the U.S. continued to provide the bulk of the FIP, with elements from the 1st Brigade/82nd Airborne Division, 16th Support Group, 7th Special Forces Group and assorted U.S. Air Force personnel.2

The FIP started deployment on May 24, but before that, the Marines had come ashore in late April with all their tools of the trade, including the M50 Ontos, an ugly light tank-destroyer equipped with six M40 RRs. In addition, each Marine company had a section of 106mm RRs to bolster their firepower. Facing them were the Constitutionalists, led by Caamaño Deñó, with 1,500 soldiers with five light tanks and one gunboat, plus another 5,000 armed civilians. The Loyalists, on the other hand, had the CEFA, the Armed Forces Training Center, under general Elías Wessin y Wessin, at San Isidro barracks, collocated with the 19th of November air base. This meant some 4,000 soldiers and the General de Brigada Felipe Ciprian Armored Battalion, consisting of four armored companies, one with AMX-13 light tanks, another with the Scania L60 truck, one with Lynx armored cars and one more with mechanized infantry with halftracks. Soon after the U.S. Marines landed, the Constitutionalists’ armored forces clashed with an armored column, resulting in a Marine M50 quickly destroying an L60 light tank but also losing an M50 in the fire exchange. Another M50 is credited with blowing the turret off a rebel AMX-13, while another light tank was destroyed by an M48 Patton tank. It is not clear if the AMX-13 with the turret blown off was later recovered, but Captain Manuel Antonio Cuervo Gómez and mechanical engineer Lazaro Rosado developed the MAC-LR, which matched one AMX-13 chassis with an HS630 triple 20mm gun. The MAC-LR was also reported destroyed in those early clashes of April 1965.

After these skirmishes, fighting was largely restricted to dealing with the occasional sniper fire, to which U.S. troops discovered that their 106-RRs were excellent anti-sniper weapons. They also used a single 106mm round to sink a boat that shelled their position with mortar fire. The U.S. retired its M40A1 recoilless rifles in favor of guided missiles starting in 1970, but 54 years after the skirmishes in the Dominican Republic, the 106mm-RR continues to be the main anti-tank and fire support weapon used by the Mexican and many Central and South American militaries. Those manufactured in Spain received the denomination “CSR-106” or “CSR CETME” 105mm while those built in Israel were called “M70s.”

Latin America’s M40A1 RR

Mexico has about 102 CSR-106s still in use, distributed among Recoilless Rifle Groups, comprising the First at San Juan Teotihuacan, the Second at Queretaro, the Third at Puebla, the Fourth at Sarabia, the Fifth and Sixth at 1-A Military Camp, Mexico D.F., the Seventh at San Miguel de los Jagüeyes and the Eighth at Chicoasen. The first M40A1 examples arrived in the early 1970s from Watervliet Arsenal (NY), followed by Spain’s Santa Barbara models in the 1980s, and then again from the U.S. in excess in the 1990s. The Mexican Army mounted its M40 RRs on Willys M38A1C, or its local equivalent the VAM J-3M, while the Navy mounted some of them on Jeep CJ-7s. Mexico received hundreds of M151s and M825s (together with numbers of M40A1s) in the early 1990s from excess stocks and U.S. pre-positioned warehouses. By 1994 Mexico had also incorporated thousands of Humvees, and eventually the M825 MUTTs (Military Utility Tactical Trucks) were replaced with M1038A1 troop carrier models. These RRs’ carriers were slightly modified with short pedestals to raise the M79 tripod high enough for the M40A1 tube to clear over the soft-top cabin, so the windshield could remain raised for travel and shooting. In 2014, Mexico purchased another 3,335 Humvee M1100 series vehicles, to include M1152 variants. This is an improved cargo/troop transport version with an integrated armor protection;3 modified as TTP (troop transport protected), and with modifications similar to the M1038A1 RR, an M1152A1 TTP-RR would have made for an expedient and more efficient armored support vehicle.

In Central America, Guatemala received a few U.S. examples, but ended up acquiring more than 56 M40A1 CSR-106s from Spain along with ECia 120mm mortars. In 1998, El Salvador organized the “AT Battalion” within the Cavalry Regiment, equipped with 18 AIL M-240 Recce Storm Jeeps and 18 M-240 Anti-Tank models. By 2019, only 12 operational CSR-106s were available, all mounted on repowered M-240 AIL jeeps. In 1977, Honduras obtained 16 160mm M66 mortars together with the first nine 106mm M70 RRs4 from Israel, and eventually amassed some 80 M40A1s to include U.S. and Spanish models. There were eight M70s on RBY-MK1 light armored vehicles, while others were mounted on M606A2 Jeeps, and Israeli Matmar Industries’ Jeep CJ-5 or CJ-6 Tolar versions.5 Honduras also adopted the Israeli practice of providing an anti-tank squad to each infantry battalion, and each brigade received an anti-tank company. Some 50 remain, mainly mounted on M825 or M998 vehicles.

In 1994, the Colombian Army restored 40 M3A1 Scout Cars, replacing the gas engines for diesels and mounting the M40A1 in the open bed. Within a decade, the Scout Cars RRs had been retired and replaced with M462 Abir Portee light trucks. The Portee was a dedicated weapon platform developed by AIL and fitted with ammunition racks, an additional fire extinguisher, equipment for the recoilless rifle and a rack at the rear for additional jerry cans, while the Colombians added some armor. Although local sources indicate that there are 75 M40A1s still operational, officially there are 63 of them.6 As a side note, Colombia has been the recipient of hundreds of Humvees, mostly M998s and M1097s, and the maintenance battalion (BAMAN) has reconstructed at least three of them to Buffalo VLBB standards. These are upgraded HMMWVs with an armored capsule that brings MRAP Level 1 protection for the crew. One of the capsule’s designs fits the two-cabin M1097 cargo variant, which, with further modifications as an RR carrier, would be an ideal fire support platform and an ideal replacement for the Abir Portee. 

The ground version of the M40 is mounted on an M79 “wheelbarrow” tripod, with a single front wheel and two solid legs while the M40A4 uses a conventional 3-leg M27 tripod. Either way, the weapon is not easily emplaced by hand. As result, Norway mounted its M40 on a two-wheel carriage and called it the Rekylfri Kanon 106mm M40. Austria built its own trailer and named it 10.6 cm rPAK (also rPak-66), and in its original form, the M40 was mounted on a simple two-wheel carriage towed 106mm RR M79 trailer. In August 2019, the Venezuelan automobile industry (ENSOVEN) developed a rolling platform for the weapon. It is similar in shape to the U.S. Marine M274, but unlike the Mule, the platform has two wheels and is not self-propelled. A number of Venezuelan RRs have been mounted on the Tiuna 106, a shortened version of the UR-53AR50 light truck, similar in design to the South Korean KM424 106mm recoilless rifle carrier, and developed by CENARECA (military auto industry). The Venezuelan Naval Weapons and Electronics Directorate (DAE) recovered four M40A1s in June 2016 for the 22nd Mariscal Antonio Jose de Sucre Marine Battalion, and by September 2019, the Military Industry complex (CAVIM) had refurbished the remaining 171 M40A1s. The weapons then were tested by the 12th Caribes Brigade before redistribution. 

Brazil has been a large user of the M40A1, retaining some 160 pieces that are operational today. The M40A1 is used by Bolivia, and there are some 24 with Ecuador. Uruguay has 69 M40A1s in use, some of them mounted on OT-64C/OT-93 APCs, and has deployed them with their forces serving with MONUC. In 2013, it was reported that Peru had deployed 36 M40A1s along the southern border with Chile.7 At one-point, Chile deployed some 500 M40A1/ CSR-106s. In 1978, when Chile’s Beagle Conflict with Argentina became acute, the No. 14 “Caupolicán” Infantry Regiment was the southernmost military unit of the Chilean Army facing Argentinean forces. It was the sole unit permanently based in Tierra del Fuego, so reinforcements came from the No. 10 “Pudeto” Infantry Regiment and from the “Cochrane” Marine Corps detachment. The M40A1 was the most important Chilean anti-tank weapon against the Argentineans, so these were supplied in quantities. The No. 145 regiment became the Reinforced Regiment No. 11 “Caupolican” on January 13, 2003, having as its headquarters El Porvenir. Currently, these regiments have become known as motorized detachments (DM), and the No. 11 DM still comprises one RR anti-tank company, together with the No. 11 “Caupolicán” Infantry Battalion, and the No. 13 “Tierra del Fuego” Artillery Group. Today, Chile has some 213 M40A1 RCLs in inventory, but only a handful are in service with the mentioned anti-tank company and the 106mm “Karut” Anti-tank Company, a unit subordinated to the No. 14 “Aysén” Reinforced Regiment based in the city of Coyhaique, under the IV Army Division. Some of the Chilean models have been upgraded with Simrad LP101 locators, computerized laser sights (CLASS) and MVS-800 night-vision systems, which allow accurate shots between 1200m and more than 2000m. The M40A1s are mounted on Jeep M-240 Storms, a multi-mission vehicle based on the Jeep Wrangler YJ and the CJ-6/CJ-8 wheelbase, built by the Israeli AIL. The M40 is used by conscribed soldiers, and familiarization is provided at “Las Bandurrias” training camp. The troops practice tactical use and combat doctrine. 

Paradise Was Hell,8 1980-1993

The offensive started with some 3,000 FMLN (Frente Farabundo Marti de Liberación Nacional) guerrillas descending from the mountains to San Salvador, occupying the neighborhoods of Mejicanos, Ciudad Delgado, Soyapango and San Jacinto, and then taking positions in the upper-class neighborhoods of San Benito, Maquilishuat, Lomas Verdes and Escalón. They also attacked the eastern cities of Zacatecoluca, San Miguel and Usulután. In their wake they overran the 1st Infantry Brigade’s positions, pushing the troops inside the Capital.9 Soon after the initial firefights, there were skirmishes in the north, east, and to a lesser extent, west of the Capital, and within 48 hours, San Salvador was a battlefield. Meanwhile, at El Paraíso Camp, in Chalatenango,10 everything was quiet—too quiet … .

El Paraiso Army Camp was one of the most besieged military garrisons in the country. The camp came into intensive fire in January 1981, when elements of the “Modesto Ramírez” guerrilla front, part of the FMLN, assaulted it and besieged the zone. In the early hours of December 30, 1983, 25 elements of the Selected Special Forces (FES), led by Dimas Rodríguez, had cleared a path through the trenches and mine fields of El Paraiso Camp with Bangalore torpedoes. Another 150 fighters of the X-21 battalion of the Popular Liberation Forces (FPL), who were hidden along the outer fence, charged through the openings, occupying and destroying the base. The attack had been executed perfectly, with the FPL’s K-93 battalion deployed west, occupying positions in the area of the Troncal del Norte highway, and attacked units at nearby El Refugio, El Barrancon in La Reina and the Colima bridge to block relief forces. The FPL’s SA-7 battalion besieged an infantry company stationed at the town of El Paraiso, setting up containments along the road to Santa Rita while the SS-20 battalion set siege to Military Detachment 1 in the city of Chalatenango. The guerrillas occupied the base for 2 days, ironically surrounded by companies from the Atlacatl and the Paratrooper battalions. As they threatened to kill the survivors, a compromise allowed them to leave on a convoy of 17 trucks and buses.

On March 31, 1987, guerrillas penetrated the perimeter once again,11 killing 64 Salvadoran soldiers and wounding 79. Their attack also killed SFC Gregory A. Fronius, an element of the 3rd Battalion, 7th SFG (A). El Paraiso was subjected to another attack in March 1988, and on September 13, 1988, another attack to the base was repelled by Army troops and U.S. advisors, Major James Parker, SSG Michael Roth, Captain Gilberto Aguiar, SFC Mario Orozco Torres and 1st Lt. Byron Castleman.12 In one of those assaults, the rebels decimated the crew of an M40A1 recoilless rifle (RR), seizing it but then failing to find the trigger to fire it against Army positions, allowing the soldiers to retake the piece. Another attack had taken place in September 1989, so upon the news of the offensive in San Salvador in November of that year, the garrison commander, Colonel Ciro López Roque cancelled all leave, while Colonel Gilbert Cáceres, S3 Officer, ordered a defensive posture. 

El Salvador, November 12, 198913

In the darkness of the early morning of November 12, 1989, on one of the defensive hills, Lieutenant Geovanni Hidalgo, Battalion Azmitía/2nd Company commander, kept watch along with a renewed crew of that same 106mm recoilless rifle momentarily lost to the enemy in a previous fight. Lt. Hidalgo watched the top of the mountain in front of him; he was aware that there was a bunker manned by local Special Forces at the crest and that previous attacks originated from that mountain just outside the base perimeter. Expecting any movement to come from the same place, Hidalgo decided to test fields of fire and calculated a point midway up the hill. After calling and checking with the nearby patrols, and lacking 12.7mm ammunition to use in the recoilless rifle’s aiming device, he, along with the gunner, simply measured the distance by sight. Hidalgo then ordered the crew to open fire. With orders to be silent, the gunner hesitated, but Hidalgo repeated, “I am telling you to shoot.” The gunner responded immediately and fired. The quick gunner’s reaction and the backblast cached the lieutenant by surprise, blinding him. While he wiped his eyes trying to recover, the radio came alive. Initially, it was feared that the round hit a nearby patrol but then they realized that the officer on the other side was asking for additional fire since the patrol had detected movement at the site of impact. Hidalgo then ordered another shot as he was recovering from his blindness; the gun crew was ahead of the order and fired, catching Hidalgo off-guard again and blinding him one more time.14 The crew and officer had forgotten that the 105mm projectile follows a curved trajectory, and instead of the side, the rounds were smashing at the foot of the mountain. The first round landed on top of the guerrilla concentration. To everyone’s surprise, as the second round landed, the base of the hill lit up. The round had smashed right on top of the guerrillas’ ammo and explosives, causing a catastrophic reaction at the point of impact. The survivors attempted suppressive fire against the recoilless gun position, but that ended quickly. At day light, the troops found the disabled mortars, traces of blood and signs of casualties.15 

From that point-on, all continued to be really quiet at the 4th Brigade while hell rained on San Salvador, where the fight was house to house. As elements of the 1st and 4th Paratrooper Squadrons broke the siege around Ilopango Air Base, they were joined by elements of the Arce Reaction Battalion pushing against a Soyapango suburb, where they engaged some 1,500 rebels of the PRTC and RN factions. As the troops advanced on rebel strongholds, the fight centered around the neighborhoods of Santos-I, Las Brisas and Reparto Guadalupe. The guerrillas finally relinquished their dug-in positions on the 16th, and were in full retreat on the 17th, with the paratroopers on their heels. The troops dragged an M40A1 RR with them to the edge of Venecia and Prusia areas, where some rebels were trapped, shelling their positions and decimating their strongholds until the fight finally ended. The battle continued elsewhere in the Capital for another 2 weeks. The CSR-106 had proven its worth, disrupting the fight in El Paraíso and helping to subdue enemy positions in Soyapango. 

A Place Called “Paradise”

It is important to dispel claims that El Paraiso base in El Salvador was devised by American advisers. “Paradise” Camp, located 64km from San Salvador and 24km from the departmental capital, Chalatenango, actually took shape in 1968-1969 as an advanced Salvadoran Army depot and as a blocking strongpoint against any Honduran incursion. It gained importance after the July 1969 war between the two countries. In the mid-1970s, the Salvadoran Army reorganized and consolidated its maneuvering units, with the 1st Infantry Brigade at San Carlos Camp (cuartel/barracks) in San Salvador, comprising the 1st Regiment, the Engineer Battalion (detachment) from Zacatecoluca, and the 4th Infantry Regiment from Chalatenango. It deployed troops along the border detachments housed at El Paraíso, Chalatenango, El Refugio, Arcatao and El Guayabo Dam. 

El Paraíso Camp was located on an esplanade not very strategically located in the municipality of El Paraíso, Chalatenango. The base covered a square kilometer of flat land while its installations occupied a hollow between Loma (“hill”) El Espinal to the north and Loma Lisa to the south in Columbia. The small town of El Paraíso is approximately 1.5km (by road) to the northeast while the Guayabo is less than 2km northwest. A main entrance to the Cerrón Grande Dam is approximately 1km southeast. The development of the Camp continued until November 4, 1980, when it was established as headquarters for the 4th Infantry Brigade, and with U.S. assistance, the defensive perimeter was established with barbed wire, fortifications and night lighting, in addition to the usual mobile patrols, fixed posts and a prevention guard. The base was neither impressive nor impregnable. 

Documents captured in 1990 indicated that the guerrillas’ attacks in November 1989 pretended to overrun the Ilopango Air Base, the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 6th Infantry Brigade bases, the Engineer Detachment and the Arce and Atonal Battalion camps. Therefore, the failed attack on the 4th Brigade was diversionary in nature and was prepared by “only” about 100 rebels. Two well-placed—and lucky—105mm shots from the M40A1 were sufficient to thwart their intentions in 1989.

1. history.army.mil/html/reference/army_flag/dominican.html.
2. dsca.mil/major-arms-sales/mexico-m1152-high-mobility-multi-purpose-wheeled-vehicles-hmmwvs.
3. United States Congress, House Committee on Foreign Affairs, 1979.
4. pmulcahy.com/light_uv/israeli_luv.htm.
5. Colombia: A Country Study. Edited by Rex A. Hudson, Library of Congress (U.S.), Federal Research Division.
6. elmostrador.cl/noticias/pais/2013/07/15/los-desconocidos-preparativos-militares-en-chile-y-peru-previos-al-fallo-de-la-haya.
7. soc.mil/ARSOF_History/articles/v3n1_paraiso_page_1.html.
8. cambridge.org/core/books/the-salvador-option/guerrilla-second-final-offensive-november-1989/6562240F43C7C91E92901ABA8788AF36.
9. contrapunto.com.sv/archivo2016/cultura/literatura/romper-un-candado-asalto-al-cuartel-el-paraiso-1983. cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90- 00965R000200730001-2.pdf.
10. cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90-00965R000200730001-2.pdf.
11. fas.org/irp/agency/dod/socom/2007history.pdf.
12. From LA F.A.E.S. a Fierro y Machete: Recopilación de Detalles Históricos de las Fuerzas de Tierra de El Salvador, draft presented to the Salvadoran Ministry of Culture, July 2019.
13. Testimony provided by Geovanni Hidalgo.
14. From LAF.A.E.S.aFierroyMachete:RecopilacióndeDetallesHistóricosdelasFuerzasdeTierradeElSalvador, draft presented to the Salvadoran Ministry of Culture, July 2019.

Until recently, the main armored transport for El Salvador’s Armed Forces (ESAF) was the UR-416 — basically a German-designed guntruck mounted on a Mercedes Unimog U-416 2-ton truck chassis. In 1974, Colonel Arturo Molina’s government purchased 10 vehicles that operated alongside locally built M35 gun trucks (called “Rayos”, or lighting). In 1977, the Armed Forces Workshop (Maestranza) started building additional gun trucks on Jupiter 7-ton truck chassis and other commercial trucks. Although Maestranza drew plans to make exact copies of the UR-416 on existing U-416 chassis during the civil-war, the plans were later modified to use Ford F-250 chassis instead, and 20 were produced—nicknamed Astroboy; these were complemented with 66 locally assembled Dodge M37B1 gun pick-up trucks (Cashuat LAV) in 1984.

In January 1977, Colonel Molina negotiated the acquisition of 12 Saladin and 8 Ferrets in the United Kingdom and eventually settled for 12 Saladin and 3 Ferret vehicles, excess of the British Army in Northern Ireland, for £850,000 according to author Mark Phythian in his book, “The Politics of British Arms Sales Since 1964: To Secure Our Rightful Share.” In July 1977, Colonel Molina is replaced by General Carlos Humberto Romero Mena as president, and, in early 1978, the British government impounded the already-bought equipment and, according to Salvadoran sources, refused to refund the money. General Romero Mena then turned to France, paying $4.8 million for 12 AML-H90 vehicles (with 90mm gun turret), around 12 AML-60 vehicles (with 60mm mortar and MG turret), and a similar number of Panhard M3 APCs (with TL.2.1.80 turret mounting twin 7.62mm machine guns). However, Romero was deposed on October 15 1979, and consequently only 10 H90-variants reached El Salvador by mid-1980. By this time, the French government had become sympathetic to the FMLN guerrilla front and stopped the delivery of equipment and additional ammunition to El Salvador. Apparently, only $800,000 would be returned, so each Salvadoran AML would cost $400,000… without spare parts.

The Salvadoran Cavalry would have only 10 AML-H90 for fire support, while riding its UR-416 and Cashuat APC into battle against the then FMLN’s guerrillas.

Combat losses

On July 30, 1975, the El Salvadorian security forces used the UR-416 for the first time in public to crush a student march in the vicinity of the Salvadoran Institute of Social Security (ISSS). On August 12, 1982, Police Sub-Sergeant Jacinto Mendoza slipped a package under one of the police UR-416s, and shortly after there were two explosions that overturned the vehicle and caused considerable damage to other police vehicles in the parking lot and set fire to a gasoline pump. Mendoza had been a guerrilla infiltrator since 1975 when his brother was reportedly killed during the demonstration.

On February 28, 1983, the cavalry regiment lost another UR-416 during intense combat near the town of Suchitoto. During an ambush, the leading AML was hit by an M72 LAWW rocket and taken out of commission while the rear of the column UR-416 rolled down an embankment and flipped over. Shortly after, in April 1983, an armored section carried out patrols along the Littoral Highway in the contested Usulután department when a foot patrol was ambushed around La Normandia Ranch. As the armored section responded, the guerrillas remotely activated an improvised explosive device (IED) that pulverized one of the AMLs.

On November 12, 1989, two UR-416s, numbers 308 and 310, were disabled when they were hit by RPG rounds and caught fire while advancing towards La Zacamil neighborhood during an FMLN’s assault on San Salvador. On November 17, as fighting spread, an armored section was cut-off and overwhelmed in the vicinity of San Sebastián neighborhood, east of San Salvador. During the fight, the leading UR-416 (no. 310) ended up in the middle of the killing zone, and was taken out of action. Twelve days later, UR no. 302 was hit by an RPG-7 in the vicinity of Las Palmas while defending the general headquarters of the joint chiefs of staff of the armed forces (EMCFA) security perimeter.

Postwar

The UR Ford-250s (and most gun trucks and tractors) would disappear after the 1992 peace agreement, but the Cashuats were retained, and efforts were made to upgrade them; four were modified with rear axles from the M35 truck. Surprisingly, all 10 UR-416s were restored to service, and in 1998, two Argentina-made Mercedes U-426 chassis were acquired to upgrade two URs. However, the armored bodies did not fit the chassis. That same year, the cavalry regiment received 38 AIL M240 Jeeps. The M240 uses a number of components available commercially in Israel, but not in El Salvador… so they proved extremely expensive, if not impossible, to operate. An honest evaluation report from the regiment on the condition of the fleet forced a cancellation of a follow up order, shutting down the “arrangement” from higher command, and costing the position of the regiment’s commander.

In 2006 the U.S. offered 18 armored HMMWV (“Humvees”) and ended up delivering 21 M1151s and four M1165s in 2009. By then, the FMLN had gained power as a political force, freezing the delivery of another 25 M1152s. In addition to protected troop transports, the M1152s could had been used as weapons platforms, replacing the existing 18 M240 AT variants with the M40A1 RCL and as TCM-20 carriers for basic ADA roles. U.S. military assistance restarted in 2012, but instead of transferring excess M1097s and M1152s to complement the M1151s, the U.S. supplied a handful of J8 Jeep Armored Patrol Vehicles (APV), which were diverted to the Salvadoran Army HQ Security Battalion. By 2018, the U.S. had offered 15 ATVs, without specifying the type, but these had failed to materialize in 2022.

The need for modern reconnaissance, transportation and internal security armor led the ESAF to sign an agreement on October 11, 2021, with the Mexican company IBN Military Industries for the supply of ten Yagu armored military vehicles. The Yagu is a small ultralight armored tactical vehicle based on the Arctic Cat Wildcat recreational off-road vehicle. Its armored hull was created by Israel’s Plasan, while the Arctic Cat is produced by a subsidiary of Textron, Inc., so its parts are commercially affordable.

The contract was worth $2,591,349s and covered two vehicles modified as drone launchers and equipped with a camera masts at $311,474 each; another five Yagus equipped only with camera masts, each at $251,600; and the remaining three purchased at $236,800 each, and lacking the two specified accessories.

The ESAF also ordered its first five SandCat armored tactical vehicles for $2,420,000, apparently from the same IBN Military Industries. The Mexican Army acquired 249 second-generation Tactical Protector Vehicle variants between 2011 and 2012 manufactured locally by Blindajes Epel, a former local partner of Oshkosh/Plasan. Epel developed the SandCat MX and the Mexican Army Military Industries developed the DN-XI based on a Ford F550 chassis. Therefore, it was initially believed that those ordered by the ESAF were SandCat Mex from Blindajes Epel. However, IBN Military Industries offered a fourth-generation model, thanks to a 2016 agreement between Plasan and that Mexican company that allowed manufacturing of a SandCat Stormer variant. Therefore, the Salvadoran SandCat are of a more flexible and modular design, mounting a kitted monocoque hull with overlapping bolted and bonded (not welded) armor, made of steel base layer with a mix of internal/external aluminum, composite/ceramic and Kevlar components. Its chassis is based on the Ford F550 truck, with a 6.7L V8 turbo diesel engine, which, together with the gearbox, are placed on a sub-frame assembly that bolts to the monocoque. The vehicle has greater level of underbody blast protection without increasing the height, center of gravity, or weight of comparably configured base vehicles. Additional protection is provided to the radiator, front wings, and critical engine components. The interior has air-conditioning as standard, and it has seats for up to ten passengers.

In addition, the ESAF invested $3,600,000 in eight Hurricane-type armored tactical vehicles. This is a vehicle built by the Mexican firm WBA Blindajes Alemanes. This model was developed using an International 3300 truck chassis, derived from the International DuraStar since 2004, and commonly used for the construction of buses with conventional bodies. It is widely used commercially, making its maintenance and logistics cost-efficient and readily accessible in the civilian-market. Mexican sources indicate that the Hurricane is equipped with the Navistar MaxxForce DT I6 7.6 L (466 cu in) 24V twin-turbo inline six, but this powerpack was offered until 2014. Those built for El Salvador are 2021 models, so they are likely equipped with the now-standard Cummins ISB 6.7L I6 (409 cu. in.) 24V turbocharged engine. The chassis has been modified with an armored hull that provides ballistic protection against 12.7mm rounds. It has ballistic glass (said to be 90mm thick). It has four side doors with anti-explosive overlaps, and a rear door for access, all of them with combat locks. The hull provides level B6 protection in the engine compartment up front and shielding to the fuel tank, break air tanks, and battery systems. The floor provides protection against two-DM51 grenades per square meter. It is provided with a 10-ton capacity winch, and it has a load capacity of 3 tons. Its interior provides ergonomic seating for up to 10 passengers, each equipped with four-point seat belts and seven firing ports. It is provided with a top hatch, and the ring can accommodate either a M60D or a M2HB machine gun. There are two other side hatches at the rear.

Upgrading

By 2009, all 10 UR-416s had been mothballed. However, as the need for an armored transport persisted, the Army’s Logistical Command (CALFA) undertook a recovery project that achieved the reconstruction of the original engines and transmissions, managing to restore six copies by 2018, and the armored hulls were eventually accommodated on the U-426. By 2022 there were eight UR-416, and one UR-416 serves as Static Guardian within the cavalry regiment. However, the UR-416s’ interior needs a complete overhaul; new wall liners, impact seats, seat belts, infrared cameras, navigation and communication equipment, and other devices. The accommodation of a modern diesel engine and automatic transmission is also desired. If only the current eight to 10 UR-416s are retained, the numbers are insufficient for the current task, so these could be transferred, along with all the M240, to the military police, allowing for replacements for the regiment. Another alternative is to acquire sufficient second-hand UR-416s to complete a squadron of 20 to 30 units, and all be subjected to modernization and standardization.

The Mexican military industry could make the upgrade of the UR-416 a reality. The Mexican military industry built several models that share DNA with the UR-416, such as the DN-VI Ocelote. Two prototypes were developed in 1987 by the then Mexican Defense Secretariat’s Department of Military Industry (DIM) now General Directorate of Military Industry (DGIM), on the chassis of a Mercedes Benz UNIMOG U1700L truck. It was basically a Mexican copy of the German TM-170 model. It’s worth noting that South Korea’s Hanwha-Defense produces the modern Barracuda based on this design. The Mexican DN-VIII was another armored vehicle built on the U1700L chassis and inspired on the German UR-425 Condor design developed in 1987. The UR-425 Condor is used today by Uruguay and Malaysia, where modernization packages have been developed to keep them running for many more years. The Cimarrón, on the other hand, is a modern Mexican solution developed from 2015, mounting an armored troop transport box on the chassis of a UNIMOG U5000. It is equipped with cameras on all four sides for night vision, and it mounts a 218-horsepower four-cylinder diesel engine. The updated model was presented to the public on September 16, 2021.

Regarding the AML, the CALFA upgraded six vehicles, exchanging their original gasoline engines with Nissan diesels, but the vehicles are still overloaded with the 1700kg H-90 turret. Furthermore, the Salvadoran H90 is manually operated and obsolete by today’s standards. Therefore, it’s probably not a bad idea to replace the H-90 turret with something lighter such as excess Cadillac Gage 50/40 one-man turrets that use a 1-meter ring, which would require some work to reduce the AML’s ring diameter.

The H-90 turret, on the other hand, could be recycled to a more stable and capable platform sharing mechanical train with the accompanying APC. It is notable that Mexican Panhards are equipped with the Lynx turret, a more advanced H-90 turret that allows a higher arc of elevation, IR sights, laser-rangefinders and stabilizer. The Lynx model could serve as an inspiration to update the Salvadoran models, as long as a new platform is found to recycle them. Otherwise, the H90 are likely to be discarded very soon.

In July 2008, the Mexican navy seized a 33-foot submarine transporting cocaine off its southern coast, some 125 miles off Puerto de Salina Cruz, Oaxaca. A year later, the U.S. Coast Guard and Mexican Navy intercepted another 8 tons of pot off the Baja California coast. According to the USCG, a C-130 Hercules patrol aircraft from Air Station Sacramento, Calif., detected the smugglers about 60 miles west of Isla Cedros. The U.S. Coast Guard dispatched the Cutter Aspen, while the Mexican Navy dispatched a patrol boat, intercepting the 16,588 pounds of marijuana as indicated, with an estimated $15 million value. These are just a couple of the many missions undertaken by the Mexican Naval forces in the drug war. The Mexican Maritime forces have developed close ties with U.S. military and anti-narcotics agencies. Not only the Navy and Marines have received U.S. training, but also receive intelligence on the whereabouts of the enemy.

It was President Felipe Calderon (2006-2012) who gave to the Navy the task of fighting the country’s drug cartels head-on and to impose public order and safety. The Mexican Navy, in particular, responded to the call with great enthusiasm and immediate action; the U.S. assisted in transforming the service into a viable force, providing it with intelligence and training to bolster its capabilities. In the exchange, both military services benefited of new experiences, equipment and training.

Tools of the trade

The Marines are now highly mobile and lightly armed, and they are confronted by well-armed and protected capos. If the need arises, the Marines can call for fire support, mostly provided by either the M1 or the Cazador (Hunter) 60mm mortars. The first one weighs 19.0 kg (41.8 lbs.) and has a range of 1,200 m. The second weighs the same as the M1, but has a range of 1,800 m. The Brandt M-29 provides support in a higher caliber (81mm) and a range of 3,800 m. The Marines have adopted the RPG-7 and RPG-75 anti-tank portable weapons. The RPG-75 is a 68mm model weighing 3.2 kg (15 lbs.), and having a range of 300 m. This RPG-75 is a portable single shot (LAWW-style) anti-tank weapon developed in Czechoslovakia in the 1970s.

More anti-tank and anti-bunker support comes from Israeli-made B 300 RCL, in 82mm caliber. The weapon weighs between 3.1 and 8.2 kg (6.8 – 18.0 lbs.), having a range of 650 m. Most recently, the Marines have organized two field artillery groups with M-56 Oto Melara howitzers. These are 105mm models with a combat range of 11,270 m. Between the latest materials received figure the PVS-14 NVG and the Sentinel AN/MPQ64 radar.

For point air defense, the Marines use the 9M39 Igla MANPAD. Although single launchers have been observed, the Mexicans appear to prefer the Djigit twin-round launcher, which weighs 128 kg with two 9M39 missiles ready to launch. The system comes with the Mowgli-2 night sight, and it has been observed in Ural and Unimog trucks. The system is also likely to be used in naval vessels. The 9M39 missile uses the cooled Lomo 9E410 dual-band seeker, and weighs 10.6 kg (with a 1.17 kg warhead). It has a maximum range of 5,200 meters and a maximum altitude of 11,500 ft. The Djigit can be installed in small combatants as well.

The M2 machine gun is used in ground and naval mounts, being highly effective against any type of target. This weapon is manufactured by General Dynamics and U.S. Ordnance in the U.S. Naval helicopters have been equipped with the FN-Herstal Mag-58, usually in the door gunner position; the FN-Herstal M3M, in the 12.7mm caliber, is also seen with the door gunners, and more recently, the Marines have received Dillon Aero M134D models. In 2011, the government expected to invest $40,232,136 in 216 machine guns to equip its new combat helicopters (UH-60M and EC-725). Much speculation centered on acquisition of additional Gau-19/A MGs, used already on MDH MD-902 models. The GECAL 50 is an electrically driven Gatling gun firing the 12.7x99mm ammo, ideal for installation on helicopters, ground and naval mounts.

The Spanish CETME Ameli (for ametralladora ligera) is also used on light vehicles and small boats, and more recently a few M60E4 models have been observed in use. Most interesting in the hands of the Mexican sailors are the Oerlikon 20mm in IV-type gun mounts placed on towed platforms for ground/AD use. The gun weighs 522 kg (1,150 lbs.), having a cadence of 450 rpm. The Oerlikon 20mm/70 has a range of some 3,450 yards (3,154 m), with a ceiling range of some 10,000 feet (3,048 m), but manually aimed weapons would reach some 1,000 yards (910 m), and on the Mk IV mount the gun can be depressed to -5 and elevated to +87 degrees. These guns are mounted in many patrol vessels, and several of them were also placed on M561 Gamma Goats. The Navy has received a number of Mk 67 and Mk 68 naval guns as well. The gun is an Mk 16 Mod 4 and Mod 5 in 20mm caliber, secured in a Mk 67 Mod 0 or Mk 68 Mod 0 gun mount. The Mk 67 holds 385-ready rounds and the Mk 68 holds two boxes with 200-ready rounds each. The gun has been rated as difficult to maintain in the U.S. and completely discarded from service. It is not known how it is faring in Mexico, but several have been observed on M561 Gamma Goat, and these are now being mounted on Chevy Rams pickups. The Mark 67 weighs 475 lbs. while the Mark 68 weights 775 lbs. The Mark 67 allows for an arc of -30 and +75 degrees while the Mark 68 allows for -45 to +70 degrees. The ammo type fired by the Mk 16 is the 20 x 110 mm (rimless type), firing M90 Series, HEI and APT up to 2,000 yards (1,830 m). The Mk67/Mk68 system was widely used in Vietnam and the following years until replaced by the 25mm.

Amphibious Reaction Forces

During Vicente Fox’s administration, the Naval Infantry fielded 11,812 Marines. These were distributed among two Amphibious Reaction Forces (FRA), comprising four Marine Groups. These forces started to reorganize and expand in 54 Marine Brigades. Effectively, between 2000 and 2006, the Mexican Navy reorganized into two Naval Forces, one based at Manzanillo, along the Pacific, and the other one at Tuxpan (Veracruz) along the Gulf and Caribbean. Each Naval Force would dispose of a Fuerza Reacción Anfibia (FRA – Amphibious Rapid Reaction Force) to undertake immediate response operations along the coast. By definition, each FRA would have had a flexible structure, with functional capabilities to undertake tasks that required rapid response, firepower, and mobility in air, sea and land operations. The FRAs accounted for 2,500 Marines, and each FRA counted with Amphibious Riflemen, Artillery and Support, Landing Assault Vehicle, and Services battalions. By the time Fox left office in 2006, the FRAs accounted for 12 Marine Battalions, and there were another 5 Marine Brigades. The arrival of the Calderon Administration signified a new reorganization and new role for the Navy and the arrival of an Enrique Peña Nieto as president in 2006 will mark even a new direction for the Navy and the Marines.

The arrival of Peña Nieto’s administration in 2012 found the 1st Naval Region deploying Marine Battalions in the Districts of Ciudad Madero (Tamaulipas) and Veracruz (2 battalions) and the naval sectors of Coatzacoalcos (Veracruz), Matamoros (Tamaulipas). The 3rd Region deployed troops in Ciudad del Carmen (Campeche), Frontera (Tabasco), Lerma (Campeche), and Champotan (Campeche). The 5th Region deployed Marines from Isla Mujeres, Chetumal, Cozumel (all three locations in Quintana Roo) and Yukalpeten (Yucatan). Along the Pacific, the 2nd deployed Marines from Ensenada and Puerto Cortes; the 4th Region had Marine battalions in Ensenada and La Paz in Baja California, Mazatlan and Topolopambo, (both at Sinaloa), Guaymas and Penasco, in Sonora; the 6th Region deployed Marines in Mazanillo (Coima), San Blas (Nayarit), Puerto Vallarta (Jalisco), and Lazaro Cardenas (Michoacán); the 8th Region controlled Marines operating from Acapulco (Guerrero), Salina Cruz (Oaxaca), Puerto Chiapas (Chiapas – 2 battalions) and Huatulco (Oaxaca). The Marine HQ in Mexico Federal District deployed two additional Intervention Marine Battalions, while the 24th Naval Infantry Battalion remained as part of the Presidential Guard Corps and depending directly from the General Staff Command.

Those Marines battalions (BIM) assigned to the FRA-PA in 2012 included the 2nd, (supported by the 1st Amphibious Assault Vehicle Company), the 4th (supported by the 2nd Amphibious Assault Coy), the 2nd Naval Commando Battalion, and the 2nd Naval Infantry Artillery Battalion. Additional support comes from the 3rd Amphibious Assault Vehicle Company and the Amphibious Reconnaissance Vehicle Company. The Caribbean and Gulf FRA deploys two BIMs (1st and 3rd), a Naval Commando Battalion (1er Batallon de Comandos), a Marine Artillery Battalion, a Landing and Vehicle Battalion, and a Service BIM.

There are four elite Mexican Naval outfits. The Marine Parachute Fusilier Battalion (FUSPAR) deploys 2 companies to support each of the Amphibious Reaction Forces, but remain based at Mexico DF. There are two Special Forces (FES) units comprising 10 Naval Commando Groups (for a total of some 460 operators distributed among FESGO and FESPA). More recently there is mention of the Fuerzas Especiales del Centro, which would indicate an expansion of the Spec Ops forces. While the FES commandos are the Mexican version of the U.S. Navy SEALs, the Amphibious Commandos (Comando Anfibio) refer to their version of U.S. Marine Reconnaissance, although not necessarily in the same level. A Mexican Amphibious Commando is said to attend a separate 8-week course. The ASIES, on the other hand, refers to four elite Strategic Security Installations Naval Group (Agrupamientos para la Seguridad de Instalaciones Estratégicas) in charge of security at Gulf drilling platforms, Laguna Verde, Geothermic and Hydroelectric plants and others.

At Speed On Water

It falls on SEMAR to perform littoral warfare and riverine operations in the national waterways. Before leaving office and during Navy Day in mid June 2012, the Navy incorporated two new coastal patrol vessels (ARM Tenochtitlán and ARM Teotihuacán), locally built for 9 million dollars apiece, and five Polaris (CB90) class interceptors (ARM Albireo, ARM Alnitak, ARM Mintaka, ARM Alfirk and ARM Alderamin). In addition to this 5 received in 2012, the Navy had previously received eight CB90 built in Mexico. The Polaris refers to the Mexican built variant of the Swedish designed CBH-90 interceptor, built locally for 2 million dollars apiece.

The Combat Boat 90 (CB90) is used in drug interdiction functions. These are fast military assault craft developed and built originally for the Swedish Navy by Dockstavarvet. The boat can operate in shallow draught thanks to its twin water jets. This allows operations at speeds of 40 knots (74 km/h) in shallow coastal waters. Mexico purchased 40 CB90 HMN between 1999 and 2001, and obtained a production license in 2002, building some 10 additional vessels, including modified models, up to June 2012. As the U.S. and Mexican navies developed closer ties, cross training commenced and evolved, to include Marine incorporation of tactics and strategies. Interestingly, in July 2007, the U.S. Navy chose the CB90 for its Navy Expeditionary Combat Command (NECC). The CB90 in U.S. service is denominated Riverine Command Boat (RCB). The U.S. version is a 49-ft. craft equipped with twin Scania DI16 850 hp diesel engines coupled to Rolls Royce FF410 waterjets. In U.S. service, the boat comes with SeaFLIR III IR system and Furuno Navigation, and has provisions for four individual .50 caliber mounts, and space for a stabilized remote control weapons station. In Mexican service, the boats have been observed with only one M2HB at stern on a ring that allows for a 360 degree line of fire; however, a few years back, the Mexican Navy acquired the first batch of 13 OTO Melara remote-controlled Hitrole 12.7mm remote-control turret, with a 400 round magazine. The system comes with a night and day sensor suite, laser range finder and ballistic computation for stand-alone mode. The Mexican Navy has also implemented the Sconta50 Project, which is a remote controlled turret equipped with an automatic fire director equipped with a 12.7mm machine gun. The turret provides for a stabilized platform for firing in vessels travelling up to 50 knots. The Mexican CB-90 variant appears to be the standard model, which is a little bigger than the U.S. model, at 15.9 m (52’) in length. This variant is equipped with Caterpillar CAT 3406E, Transas navigation system, HoseMcCann intercom and Marineair AC. The vessel can carry up to 21 troops. The comparison with the U.S. model can give an idea on how powerfully these boats can be armed and used. The Navy also developed the Acuario and Acuario B designs from the Polaris. Six Acuarios have been built, along with two B models. In 2005, the Navy developed the Interceptor Craft 16M (IC16M), denominated Polaris II, a shortened design similar to the US RCB, and equipped with two MAN 2842LE 410 diesel engines instead of the Caterpillar, and these are matched to two Rolls-Royce FF410 waterjets, allowing for up to 50 knots. Mexico planned for 120 CB90 in both types.

Along with the delivery of these new boats, the Calderon period (2006-2012) saw the delivery of 36 U.S. supplied SAFE Defenders, and 6 MLB, and one of the two logistical vessels being built in local yards. It is noted that the Mexican Navy has adopted a number of systems and tactics common to the U.S. counterpart for use in riverine and coastal warfare. A number of Polar Kraft boats are now used in interior waterways, along with Zodiac Mk-V and Valiant Dr boats. The small unit riverine craft (SURC) has been acquired, although it appears to be in the naval interceptor version instead of the weapons platform used by the U.S. Navy. The SURC has a rigid hull that comes with a high strength solid cell foam collar, which provides stability, redundant buoyancy, and small-arms ballistic protection. As a weapons platform, the boat can be equipped with a number of M2HB, Mk-19 and others, but in Mexican service it comes in the Navy Grey color, instead of camouflage, and it carries a single gun mount.

At Speed On Land

The Navy’s motorized fleet has been expanding, receiving a number of Kawasaki Mule 4010 Trans 4×4 ATVs, as well as Dodge RAM 1500 and 1500 ST pickup trucks. These are the workhorses of the urban patrol units. Each RAM can carry up to 10 troops, and both models are built in Mexico, with the first one carrying a V6 Magnum, 3.9 liter, gas engine rated at 125 hp and the second a V6, 3.7 liter, 215 hp model. The bigger Dodge RAM 2500 is also used, and it is also built in Mexico with a V8 Magnum, 5.9 Liter, gas engines rating 230 hp. The Ford F150 and F-250 are also used as troop transports, and are locally built using a V8, 5.4 liter, 300 hp gas engines, and V6, 4.2 Liter, 210 hp models respectively. The Chevrolet Cheyenne is built with a V8 Vortec, 5.3 Liter, and gas engine developing 285 hp or a 315 hp model. Although the pickups are modified with a simple roll-bar and other accessories, ideally, the government should take advantage of the local industry to transform the pickups into dedicated fighting vehicles. Instead of a pedestal mount, a ring would allow for a 360 degree field of fire; a better designed roll-bar could protect the vehicle all around against hits, and also function to attach armored plates, blast protection seats, and additional accessories.

For fast patrol and liaison missions, the Marines depend on the Jeep CJ7, and more recently the Mercedes Benz “G” Wagon. Numbers of Land Rover Defenders have been added to the fleet. In fact, some Land Rovers have been mentioned as armored vehicles, suggesting a protected model with space for 11 troops. The Ninjas refer to the Chenowth DPV Fast Assault Vehicles, with some 6 in use. In mid- 2011 the Navy announced the establishment of armored units equipped with the Carat Security Wolverine APCs, built in Monterrey on Ford F-450 truck chassis. These were denominated Puma B6 APC by the Mexican Naval entity. It uses a V8 diesel engine developing 390 hp, allowing for a maximum speed of 130 km/h. The Puma has already engaged in combat against armored pickup trucks used by the capos. The Navy is said to use the similar Black Scorpion model, made from the same firm, but based on the Toyota model. This material is now complementing the 30, or so, Irtish BTR 60, denominated APC 70. Reports indicate that those models in Mexican service have been modified with diesel engines, but the originals were also modified with a 12 liter, gas engines, developing 210 hp each. It is noted that the Unimog U4000 is now the standard tactical truck with the Marines, so it would be only logical the eventual acquisition of the Unimog U5000/1300 APC. In addition to the mentioned U4000, the medium load tactical truck fleet includes the Ural, locally-built Dina S400, S500, D400, D500, and Freightliner M2 35k models. There are also Chevrolet Kodiak, International 4700, Ural 4320-31, M-35 and Dina 4100.