Firearms safeties may be best understood if they’re divided into two categories – manual safeties and automatic safeties. Manual safeties (sometimes called “active safeties”) typically require the shooter to manually operate a lever, switch, or button from an “off” position to an “on” position or vice versa. Comparatively, automatic safeties are internal safeties (sometimes called “passive safeties”) that operate without manual manipulation by the shooter.

There is another safety device category that is external to the gun itself – the external safety. This category includes bore locks, trigger locks and gun safes. In the late 1990s the ATF pressured handgun manufacturers to include integral locking mechanisms on handguns that could only be unlocked by inserting a special key into the gun at exactly the right place before the gun could be fired. That didn’t bode well with common sense and the gun owner community because it added yet another step to making a gun ready to fire in an emergency scenario. Fortunately, only a few manufacturers like Smith & Wesson capitulated to political and media pressure by adding integrally designed key locks to their handgun line. This entire safety device category is obviously intended for secure firearms storage and theft deterrence and does not apply to firearms for ready use or carry. For the purposes of this article, these will not be further discussed.

Manual Safety

The most common gun safety is the manual safety. It consists of a switch, button or lever that, when manually set to the “safe” position, prevents the firearm from firing. While seemingly straight forward, the design mechanics involved in manual safeties are as different as the firearms they serve. Of the many designs, most conform to some variation of two basic designs. The first employs a block or latch that prevents the trigger and/or firing mechanism from moving. The second type mechanically disconnects the trigger from the gun’s firing mechanism. There are exceptions to the rule. For example, in a conscious effort to keep the firearm in a higher state of readiness many “double-action” firearms (like revolvers and some pistols) do not have manual safeties. The thinking is the double-action, longer-harder trigger pull to cock and fire provides adequate safety. Whether that’s the case, it’s left to the shooter to determine. That’s why many carry their revolvers on an empty chamber or do not chamber a round in a double-action, semi-automatic pistol for fear of accidental discharge. Of course, carrying a gun for the purpose of self-defense without a chambered round is akin to carrying an empty canteen into the desert in case you find water. It’s illogical.

Grip Safety

There are grip safeties, as well. The classic Colt .45 M1911 design is a prime example of a semi-automatic handgun with a grip safety, while Springfield Armory’s XD pistol and the Uzi submachine gun are other notable examples with a grip safety. A grip safety is a lever or other grip-depressible device positioned on the grip of a firearm (usually the rear strap area) that can only be actuated as a natural consequence of gripping the firearm in the proper firing position. Grip safeties function much like a manual safety, but they are momentary, and only deactivate while the shooter maintains his squeezing hold on the pistol grip. Once the shooter releases his grip, the safety is immediately re-engaged.

Integrated Trigger Safeties

Like grip safeties, trigger safeties are de-activated as a natural consequence of properly holding and pulling the trigger but are otherwise engaged, providing a margin of safety. First used in the 1897 Iver Johnson Second Model Safety Hammerless revolver, there are two independent parts that comprise a trigger safety – a trigger and a small blade-like spring-tensioned lever protruding forward from inside the trigger’s lower half. This lever, when fully depressed by a trigger finger on each trigger pull, disengages a trigger locking mechanism that allows the main trigger body to move rearward. The lever does not disengage the trigger lock without intentional depression.

Squeeze-Cocker

During the mid-1970s, Heckler & Koch debuted a unique squeeze-cocker safety in their Model P-7 pistol line. Without a doubt, this was a revolutionary pistol safety concept because the pistol was only cocked and ready to fire when a full, grip-length lever located on the front edge of the pistol grip was fully depressed by the shooter. When the shooter released his grip, the P-7 was immediately decocked. The design prevented the single-action trigger alone from cocking the firearm and so, the P-7 would not fire unless the grip was fully squeezed rearward to its stopping point. There were several other ways the P-7 could be fired. The trigger could be pulled first and then when the grip was subsequently squeezed, cocking the gun, the gun would fire. It could also be fired if the grip was squeezed  and the trigger was pulled simultaneously. The key to all the P-7’s firing alternatives was fully squeezing the grip cocking lever. The P-7 enjoyed limited popularity among U.S. hand gunners because a quickdraw and fire sequence was impossible. P-7 production stopped in the late 1990s because of a dwindling market. Nonetheless, the concept was out of the box thinking that could have been further refined for application on other types of firearms.

Decocker

Traditionally, semi-automatic single action/double-action (SA/DA) pistols are designed to be carried with the hammer down on a chambered round, with or without a manual safety engaged. With the hammer down, the pistol is uncocked, and it is considered safe. In this state, pulling the double-action trigger both cocks and fires the firearm. On the other hand, the double action trigger pull is both longer and heavier (measured in pounds) than the single action trigger pull which simply releases an already cocked hammer.

Therefore, discharging the firearm, or manually cycling the slide to chamber the first round will both load a round into the firing chamber and cock the hammer in the single-action mode.  This makes it necessary to un-cock the hammer to return the pistol to its safe state. On hammer-fired pistols, this is accomplished by holding the hammer spur with the thumb while carefully pulling the trigger, then slowly lowering the hammer down onto the firing pin. This procedure has the inherent risk of accidental discharge, especially if one’s thumb slips off the hammer during the process of uncocking. It takes practice.

Comparatively, striker-fired pistols, do not have a hammer. This means the only way to return the trigger to its longer double action pull is by means of a decocker mechanism that is purposely designed into the gun. The decocker mechanism safely releases the striker’s spring tension without allowing the firing pin to travel.

Some hammer-fired pistols also employ a decocker which consists of a physical firing pin block that physically prevents the hammer from contacting the firing pin as it falls. The actual process of decocking is done by rotating the decocking lever to the decocked position. The decocking lever is usually ambidextrous and located on the rear of the frame or slide for thumb manipulation. A decocker eliminates the need to pull the trigger and control the fall of the hammer.  While using a decocker seems straight forward, they are not foolproof. Always keep your gun muzzle pointed in a safe direction while decocking.

Remarkably, the decocker is not new to firearms. The earliest use of a single action decocker can be traced back to 1932 where it debuted on the Polish-built Radom Vis wz. 35. The Radom pistol was based on John Browning’s M1911 design, and its design purpose was to provide horse-mounted cavalry soldiers a pistol that could be safely decocked and holstered using one hand. The Radom decocker led to a more advanced, yet simpler, two-way decock-safety combination consisting of a manual safety switch and decocking. This single lever both engaged the safety and decocked the pistol. In 1938, SIG Sauer followed with its cocking/decocking lever in the Sauer 38H and has continued to feature decocking levers in its line of pistols to this day. Walther incorporated the decocking feature into its famous “PP” models and Beretta later used it on the Beretta 92 (M9) models.  

Not to be outdone, Heckler & Koch equipped their line of pistols with a unique “three-way” decocking safety system which decocked the pistol by pushing down on the safety lever from the “Fire” setting or engaged the safety (even on a cocked firearm) by pushing the lever upwards. In 2007 Ruger debuted the “decock-only” variants of its P-series pistols and has offered the decocking safety on these pistols ever since. As should be apparent, the decocking-safety, in its many forms, has become commonplace because it works reliably.

Drop Safety / Firing Pin Block

The oldest form of drop safety is the safety notch (many times referred to as “half-cock.”) It was used on most black powder 19^th Century-era rifles and pistols and transitioned to rifles and single-action revolvers manufactured before the invention of the hammer block. Numerous reproduction models of bygone era rifles and pistols are still equipped with a safety notch. The safety notch is nothing more than a relief cut made in the tumbler at the base of the hammer that allows the trigger sear to catch and hold the hammer a short distance away from the cap / cartridge primer. The safety notch is engaged by partially cocking the hammer a short distance from the firing pin or primer. Once the safety notch is engaged, the hammer is locked to any forward motion without first manually cocking the hammer before pulling the trigger. The safety notch, when engaged, acts as a primary safety by effectively preventing the hammer from any forward travel towards the firing pin should the weapon be dropped. More importantly, in scenarios where dropping a weapon jarred the trigger sear loose (the trigger releases the hammer from the drop shock of inertia), it provides a margin of safety by “catching” a falling hammer when the trigger has not been pulled.

There is a downside to the safety notch. Safety notch-style safeties are subject to wear and breakage which often results in unintentional discharges. Secondly, while not a complicated process, placing the hammer into the half-cock position is an active feature that the shooter must consciously engage. That process requires a certain amount of operator familiarity and manual dexterity to prevent accidental discharges. 

To make it appear they were in control of the situation, Congress stepped in following a rash of political assassinations in the 1960’s timeframe. Drop test requirements for imported guns were introduced along with the Federal Gun Control Act of 1968. The new law’s stated purpose was to provide a basis for import denial of cheaply built firearms that could inadvertently fire if they were dropped or roughly handled. Most firearm designs prior to 1968 had the uncocked firing pin being held idle by the firing pin spring above a chambered round. This meant the inertia from a vertical drop that was in line with the firing pin would drive the firing pin forward onto the primer of a chambered cartridge, causing the gun to fire. It also meant that the anti-gun community now had a raison d’etre they could use to regulate gun imports, while it further provided a liability premise for lawsuits. Unfriendly gun states like California immediately jumped on this bandwagon by requiring all new guns imported into California to have some form of positive drop safety built into them.

The gun manufacturers responded by engineering passive drop safeties into their new firearms. The best way to picture these passive safety designs is to visualize the firing pin being cut in its middle and physically separated by a wedge-like block called a “firing pin block” that is held in place by a small spring that is attached to the trigger mechanism. As the trigger is pulled, the wedge is withdrawn from the firing pin halves and the firing pin is made whole again so the gun can fire. As the trigger pull is relaxed, the wedge again lifts to physically block the firing pin mechanism. Therefore, drop safeties provide a physical obstacle to the operation of the firing mechanism. This block is only removed when the trigger is pulled so that the firearm cannot discharge if dropped.

While government-required drop safeties seem reasonable, there is a downside and that’s firing reliability. There are some drop safety designs that will only allow the gun to fire if it’s being held straight and level. That means your gun may not reliably fire if you’re engaging a target that requires the firearm be held in a vertical orientation (think aiming down from a rooftop, up a  stairwell, etc.) or while shooting upside down, laying on your back (think extreme situations, not Hollywood). So, for those who bet their lives on gun reliability, drop safeties are not necessarily desirable. 

Hammer Block

Like a firing pin block, a hammer block consists of a block built into the action that physically prevents the hammer from contacting the firing pin when down (at rest) in the uncocked position. Much like the firing pin block, the hammer block is withdrawn as the trigger is pulled.

Transfer Bar

Transfer bars are used in some exposed hammer-fired revolver and rifle designs. In most designs the transfer bar rotates out-of-line with the hammer’s travel, making it physically impossible for the hammer to contact the firing pin. When the trigger is pulled, the transfer bar rotates into alignment with the firing pin. The hammer falls, striking the transfer bar at its firing point, which transfers the hammer strike to a firing pin-like spur that strikes the cartridge primer and fires the gun. Like the firing pin block, the transfer bar provides a similar level of drop safety.

Bolt Interlocks and Trigger Disconnects

Some form of bolt interlocks and/or trigger disconnects are used on most all modern repeating action firearms to include bolt, pump and lever-action shotguns and rifles. A bolt interlock works by disengaging (or blocking) the trigger when the bolt is not in full battery (fully closed and fully locked). The trigger disconnect prevents the gun from firing until the bolt is fully locked and thus prevents out-of-battery “slam fire” malfunctions. These mostly result from worn out trigger catch mechanisms that allow the hammer to follow the bolt or bolt carrier group forward as it closes. That’s why modern self-loading firearms require a separate trigger reset and pull to fire each successive cartridge. Even though interlocks and trigger disconnects help prevent misfires when the firearm is not in full battery, they are not considered safeties because they can easily fail from excessive wear, rust, or accumulated dirt. Keep your weapon clean, lubricated and inspect for wear every time you clean it.

Magazine Disconnects

The Browning Hi-Power pistol was one of the first production handguns equipped with a magazine disconnect. In 2006, California passed legislation requiring magazine disconnects on all new handgun designs sold in the state beginning January 1, 2007 which resulted in their widespread proliferation. A magazine disconnect prevents the gun from firing if the magazine is withdrawn or not fully locked into place even if there is a round in the chamber. It works by means of a mechanism that engages an internal safety like a firing-pin block or trigger disconnect when the magazine is not locked in place.

Like any automatic safety, there are magazine disconnect pros and cons. Yes, the gun cannot fire without a properly installed magazine, and an accidental discharge can be prevented with the magazine removed. However, the disconnect mechanism, itself, adds tension to the trigger mechanism components and that often makes the trigger pull unpredictable or heavy. A real safety concern, especially on older guns, is that spring fatigue and/or rust can lead to magazine disconnect failure. When it does, it will most likely happen when the gun is in the “fire” mode without giving the shooter any indication of its failure; a circumstance that can be lethal.

An additional safety argument against a magazine disconnect is that the user may eject his magazine when unloading his pistol, then reinsert an empty magazine into the magazine well to dry fire the gun for storage. Even though the magazine is empty, once it’s inserted, the disconnect firing system becomes reactivated. That means if a live round was inadvertently left in the chamber, the gun will fire. The Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers’ Institute (SAAMI) stated that an “obvious concern with magazine disconnect features is that determining whether the gun is safe becomes linked to the presence of the magazine as opposed to actually checking the gun, opening the action, and making sure it is unloaded.” For the reasons stated above, many shooters deactivate their gun’s magazine disconnect feature and rely instead on sound firearm handling safety protocols. 

While not a safety, per se’, the loaded chamber indicator is found on many modern semi-automatic handguns. Its purpose is to provide the shooter a visual cue that a round is chambered. Depending on the manufacturer and model of the pistol, it may come in the form of a small protruding button or bar that pops up somewhere behind the slide’s ejector port to indicate the presence of a chambered round. Other designs consist of a small cut away section along the top or side edge of the bolt face that allows the shooter to see the brass cartridge rim of a chambered cartridge. Regardless, one should never bet their life on a loaded chamber indicator. There is no better way to positively confirm that a round is chambered (or not) and that is to do a simple “press check”. This is accomplished by partially pulling the slide back and visually sighting the rear of the chamber for the presence of a cartridge, and then easing the slide forward into battery.

Why Can’t the Firearms Industry Agree on the Use of a Common Safety Mecanism?

The answer is simple. Safeties are as varied as the gun models themselves. Different operating systems and trigger mechanisms require different safeties. What works for one design may not work for another. Most of all, we must not confuse what is theoretically possible with what is practically feasible. Trust and belief are different. Trust is based upon past performance. Belief is divine. Trusting a firearm safety’s reliability and believing safeties work both require physical verification. The bottom line: Never trust or believe any safety is 100% safe. Treat all firearms as though they’re loaded and ready to fire.

The cap bodies were simply small, thimble-shaped cups with a base rim flange that were die-formed out of thin iron, pewter or copper sheet (today’s center fire primer caps are formed out of aluminum). A small amount of pressure-sensitive chemical explosive, called an initiator, was cast inside the cap base. Typical initiators used during that era were mercury fulminate or potassium chlorate, in combination with oxidizers. As a group, these initiating compounds were called fulminating powders or simply, fulminate. Today it is known as the “primer.”

Using this fulminated-base cap design as a crude cartridge meant the firing pin could strike the cap’s bottom outside face at any location to fire the cartridge. Since the cap’s base rim (flange) diameter was already small (6.9mm), with very thin metal across its center, Flobert designed a firing pin strike point to impact along the cap’s base rim where the metal was folded to create the flange. Striking this thicker rim area all but eliminated the likelihood of puncture that could vent combustion gas rearward towards the shooter. Thus, the rimfire cartridge was born. So now you know—it’s called “rimfire ammunition” because the gun’s firing pin strikes and crushes a small notch into the cartridge base’s rim to ignite the primer (fulminate), and that fires the cartridge.

These first Flobert .22 BB cartridges did not contain any propellant powder. The only propellant was the fulminate cast into the internal base of the BB cap. Although crude by today’s ammunition designs, the Flobert cartridge led to the elimination of muzzle loading and cap and ball firearms by combining a percussion cap (that later included a pre-mea-sured powder charge) and a bullet in a single, self-contained, easily loaded, weather-resis-tant cartridge.

Parlor Guns

Flobert made use of his new metallic cartridge ammunition in what he called “parlor guns.” These heavy barreled rifles and pistols, many with ornately engraved metal work and relief carved furniture (stocks and grips), were designed for in-home target shooting. In the mid-19th century it was fashionable for wealthy Europeans to have a dedicated shooting parlor or shooting gallery inside their homes. Flobert’s new ammunition fired by his parlor guns answered that market.

Prior to the 6mm Flobert cartridge, a typical “cartridge” consisted of a premeasured quantity of black powder wrapped together with a ball in a tightly rolled paper cylinder or small cylindrically shaped cloth bag, which also acted as wadding (gas check). This fragile cartridge was either breech-loaded or muzzle-loaded (depending on the firearm’s design) and ignited by a percussion cap that was separately attached to a cap nipple (touch hole). While far faster than muzzle loading individual components (powder, wad, ball), this delicate paper or cloth cartridge was neither weather-resistant, nor utilitarian.

In 1888, the .22 BB Cap that Flobert introduced in 1845 was improved and became the .22 CB (conical bullet) Cap. The .22 CB Cap was loaded with a lead-cast .22 caliber conical bullet instead of a ball. It also became slightly more powerful than its predecessor when a few grains of black powder were added inside the percussion cap cavity to boost bullet velocity from the BB’s 400ft/sec to CB’s 700ft/sec. Even so, both the BB and CB cartridges (still available today) are called 6mm Flobert and for all practical purposes are considered the same cartridge.

Unique to that point in history, Flobert designed a distinctive bullet shape for his cartridge using what is known as a “heeled” bullet design. This was necessary because the bullet and the cartridge case outside diameter are the same. Therefore, Flobert narrowed the bullet’s base to form a “heel” or “shoe-like” shape so it could be inserted into the cartridge case.

The Short and Long of It

Thus, rimfire ammunition got its start and continued to evolve. In 1857, Smith & Wesson developed the 22 Short for specific chambering in their newest revolver. The 22 Short used a lengthened CB rimfire cartridge case loaded with 4 grains of black powder that propelled a 29-grain, lead cast conical “heeled” bullet. This success in popularity and performance led to the 1871 debut of the 22 Long.

The 22 Long used the same 29-grain bullet as the 22 Short, but it employed a longer cartridge case that provided the needed space for 5 grains of black powder, which increased bullet velocity to near sonic speed. This was followed by the 22 Extra Long in 1880, which was designed primarily for use in bolt-action rifles. With a case longer than the 22 Long and a heavier 40-grain outside lubricated conical lead bullet, the Extra Long was loaded with 6 grains of black powder.

Building upon these many successes, the 22 Rimfire continued to morph. In 1887, U.S. arms manufacturer, J. Stevens Arms & Tool Company introduced today’s favorite 22 Long Rifle cartridge (22LR). Stevens brilliantly combined the casing of the 22 Long with the 40-grain bullet of the 22 Extra Long and loaded it with smokeless powder. This component marriage gave the 22LR a longer overall length, a higher muzzle velocity and superior performance for small game hunting, plinking and competition shooting. These enhancements also improved 22LR performance and popularity to the point its success doomed both the 22 Long and 22 Extra Long cartridges to obscurity.

22WRF Ammunition

In 1890, Winchester introduced its M1890 slide rifle (pump action) that fired Win-chester’s latest .22 rimfire ammunition improvement: the .22 Winchester Rimfire or 22WRF. This ammunition employed a slightly larger diameter cartridge case than the 22LR and a flat-base, flat-nose bullet, making it ideal for use in pump rifles with tubular magazines. The 22 WRF bullet also differed from its .22 rimfire predecessors’ outside-lubricated grooved bullets (used in the 22 Short, Long, LR and Extra Long) by using inside-lubricated bullets which protected the lubrication from dirt contamination. While demonstrably less accurate than the 22LR, it possessed a notable improvement in killing power.

But the 22 WRF met with obsolescence just prior to WWII as smokeless rifle propel-lants improved so significantly they replaced black powder and nitro-cellulose propellants. By loading this new, high-velocity, smokeless propellant in the 22 LR cartridge, its bullet velocity soared into the 1,300 to 1,500ft/sec range, trumping the 22WRF with increased power at a far cheaper cost per round.

From 22WRF to 22WMR

Winchester debuted the next major improvement in .22 rimfire ammunition in 1959 with their 22 Winchester Magnum Rifle ammunition or 22WMR. The WMR cartridge case is essentially a lengthened version of the older WRF cartridge case with a jacketed bullet. The WMR is offered in a range of 30- to 40-grain unlubricated jacketed (or plated) bullets. While comparable in bullet weight to the 22 Long Rifle, the WMR rounds fly faster, flatter and farther and carry far superior kinetic energy at all ranges. For example, WMR bullet velocities using a 30-grain bullet can easily exceed 2,300ft/sec and 1,875ft/sec using a heavier 40-grain bullet when fired from a rifle.

Because of the WMR’s larger case diameter and greater length, a 22WMR round will not chamber in a firearm chambered for any other .22 cartridge. However, the reverse is possible, and if fired, the resulting hot high-pressure gas venting around the smaller .22 cartridge case can be very dangerous to the shooter’s face and eyes.

Remarkably, in terms of ammunition quantity sold over the last 150 years, 22 Long Rifle far exceeds the popularity of any other commonly used ammunition on planet Earth. Some of the reasons are its low recoil, low cost (per round) and the large variety of rifles and handguns chambered to fire it. However, 22 LR ammunition has experienced sporadic availability issues over the past, resulting from the government’s tightening of firearms purchase and ownership regulations.
Those who experienced the threatening on again/off again times of firearms regulation—especially leading up to the 2006 through 2016 House, Senate and Presidential elections—may recall those times when store ammunition shelves were sold out, and ammunition hoarding became the norm. Today, .22 rim-fire ammunition is abundantly available, but that availability will again become threatened depending upon which political party is in power. Therefore, we should anticipate future ammunition shortages, at which time the political power changes hands. During such times, dating back to the early 1900s, reloading centerfire ammunition has always been a fallback to traverse ever-restrictive firearms and ammunition regulations. But today, reloading .22 rimfire brass has mostly been discounted as the impossible dream.

Sharp Shooter Ammunition LLC

Thanks to Brian Nixon, founder of Sharp Shooter Ammunition LLC, the .22 rimfire reloading story continues; and there is light at the end of the .22 rimfire reloading tunnel (and it’s not the approaching train). Not only is reloading .22 rimfire brass possible (including .22 WMR brass), it’s an easy process if you have the right stuff. Even better, the reloading equipment and components necessary are readily available and affordable should you desire to have the capability available when needed.

Everything needed to get started is available in kit form on the web at 22lrreloader.com/store. Sharp Shooter Ammunition LLC offers two .22 reloading kits, one for 22LR and one for 22WMR. Since LR and WMR use different outside diameter and length cartridge cases, you’ll need to buy the appropriate reloading kit depending upon what you intend to reload.

Sharp Shooter’s reloading kit provides the basic tools necessary to cast your own bullets and reload your spent .22 rimfire brass. Above all, Sharp Shooter has included a detailed instruction pamphlet. Written in plain English and laid out with descriptive close-up photos showing detailed cutaway views, this pamphlet contains everything you need to know to reload .22 rimfire ammunition using the Sharp Shooter kit.

A small, wire dual-purpose scraper/tamper tool is provided as part of the kit. This ingenuous tool serves as a scraper to remove the burnt priming compound residue from the case’s internal rim. The tamper end is designed to help work fresh (moistened) priming compound (fulminate) back into the cleaned cartridge case rim. The priming compound is moistened to make it insensitive to pressure and friction (more on that in a moment).

Manufacturers of .22 rimfire ammunition stuff a small quantity of priming compound into this petite space inside the cartridge case rim. It is this primer material that explodes and ignites the powder charge when the gun’s firing pin strikes the very edge of the case rim. The shot consumes all of the priming compound, and the firing pin strike leaves a characteristic compression dent in the base of the cartridge case rim.

Sharp Shooter additionally offers prim-ing compound ingredients consisting of four small bags of powders identified as, “L,” “L2” and two bags marked “S.” These powders are proportionally mixed per the guidance provided in the instruction manual using the kit’s measuring scoop. Once mixed, the light-gray-colored priming compound becomes pressure sensitive and must be respected in its handling. As a matter of safety, the primer compound should be desensitized by moistening before attempting to work it into the case’s internal rim. Desensitizing can be easily accomplished by using the kit-provided eyedropper to add a drop of acetone, denatured alcohol (even vodka will work) to the primer once it’s loaded into the case. Working moistened primer into the empty rim area is far safer and easier than using dry pressure sensitive primer. The down side of moistening the primer is that it must be completely dried out (at least overnight) before continuing the loading process. That said, the added margin of safety is worth the wait.

Using Sharp Shooter’s priming compound is both easy and reliable, but other priming compound, like Prime-All, is available from commercial sources. There are some priming compound homemade alternatives that can be realized by harvesting the powder contained in commonly available things, like strike anywhere match heads or the contents of party poppers you throw on the floor and pop when stepped on. Even powder contained in toy gun cup-type roll caps can be gently scraped off and collected for use as a primer. In all cases the primer should be moistened for loading safety.

As a side note, the question always seems to arise as to whether a reloaded rimfire round will reliably fire if the firing pin hits the same indent left from a previous firing. The answer is somewhat dubious. First, the firing pin dent can be knocked back out by using a small pin punch or flat blade screwdriver, but the casing can also be damaged in the process. Second, the odds that the firing pin will strike exactly the same location again are very long. Third, assuming one uses the same gun he used to fire the ammunition the first time with identical firing pin geometry, and should the firing pin precisely strike the exact same indent it left from the first firing, the odds are the round will still fire. That’s an acceptable gamble in most all scenarios except self-defense.

A small base funnel and a powder dipper are also provided in the kit. The small base funnel is used to charge the cases with primer and powder. The powder dipper has a small cup on either end that provides a precise powder measure with each dip. Weighing the powder charge is unnecessary if you use the powder dipper and follow the instruction book.

A pliers-like tool serves double duty as a two-cavity bullet mold and crimping tool. Two bullets can be made per cast; one is a 25-grain solid point, and the other is a 38-grain round nose. Sharp Shooter’s plier mold has a steel spur cutter engineered into the mold that flat cuts the bullet’s base. The bullets, themselves, have a lube groove cast into them for proper down-bore bullet lubrication. Bullet lubrication compound is commercially available, but alternatives like beeswax will work. Unlubed bullets are safe to use, but they will result in lead accumulation in the bore, necessitating frequent cleaning.

Resizing expended brass casing before reloading is a good idea but not necessary if the reloads are fired in the same gun. If the intention is to use the reloaded ammunition in several different guns, resizing is necessary. Sold separately, Sharp Shooter offers an inexpensive resizing die that fits any sin-gle-stage reloading press.

Casting your own bullets does not require using a casting furnace or buying lead. Almost any old iron pan or pot will work, and it can be heated using a propane blowtorch or other gas-type burner. Lead is available from numerous sources. Wheel weights, recovered lead shot or bullets can all be melted for bullet casting. Slag can be skimmed off using an old spoon. Preheating the mold prior to lead casting is important to flawless bullet casting. Be sure to extend the bullet mold’s handle length with a vice-grip or suitable locking pliers and wear gloves and eye protection. It’s also wise to do all lead melting and casting outdoors. Wearing a breathing mask is also a good idea.

Follow Directions

Make no mistake, reloading rimfire cartridges is a time-consuming process. Follow the provided instructions carefully. The most important step (before priming) is meticulously scraping the burned primer residue out of the inside rim of each cartridge case. That narrow little rim space must be clean so new primer can be worked into the rim.

Once the cartridge cases are primed and dried and bullets are cast, the next step is charging them with powder. Sharp Shooter’s instruction book provides suggested charge guidelines for several commonly available smokeless gunpowder brands, e.g., IMR, Hodgdon, Alliant Unique and Pyrodex P. Additionally, black powder can be effectively used.

The small powder funnel provided in the kit is used to charge each casing. The .22 bullets are inserted manually but need to be crimped using the bullet mold crimp-ing tool. The crimping notch is located forward of the two bullet cavities. At the conclusion of the described preceding process, the reloads are now complete and ready to shoot.

Is reloading .22 rimfire worth it? You be the judge. If history repeats itself, there will be future ammunition shortages. Having this inexpensive reloading capability in your hip pocket is insurance from tyranny. Sharp Shooter’s products work as advertised.

The optical sighting device industry is heading toward replacing traditional ground lens see-through glass optics with optoelectronic sighting devices. This evolution is made even more potent through the integration of optoelectronics and artificial intelligence (AI). Like high definition multi-spectral cameras and viewing screens that offer reliable performance under all light extremes and environmental conditions, sophisticated technology is slowly becoming the norm. For example, the U.S. Army’s Program Executive Office Command, Control, Communications-Tactical seeks single-channel data radios that can “support and integrate” with the Integrated Visual Augmentation System (IVAS). The IVAS program, led by the Soldier Lethality Cross-Functional Team, provides soldiers with artificial intelligence—enhanced goggles that assist with navigation, targeting and advanced night and thermal vision (more on this later). Will this technology transition to the sporting firearms market? Absolutely! It already is.

Perhaps a quick review of the technology may be helpful. Optoelectronics is the science and application of electronic devices that source, detect and control light. Many consider it a sub-field of photonics (the science of radiant energy). In this context, light includes visible light and invisible forms of radiation such as gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet and infrared. Photonic devices are electrical-to-optical or optical-to-electrical transducers (devices that convert forms of energy) or instruments that use such tools in their operation. Electro-optics is often erroneously used as a synonym for optoelectronics. While related, “electro-optics” encompasses a much broader physics branch that includes all interactions between light and electric fields, whether or not they form part of a particular electronic device.

Remarkably, optoelectronics is not a new technology. It can be traced back to 1907 when Englishman Henry Round (remember this name) discovered electroluminescence using silicon carbide and a cat whisker while experimenting with a turn-of-the-century crystal radio set.Uniquely, this straightforward radio receiver’s only source of power comes solely from the power of radio waves received via its long-wire antenna. It gets its name from its most crucial component known as a crystal detector, originally made from a piece of crystalline mineral such as galena.

Galena is the naturally occurring ore of lead. Galena crystals act as a semiconductor with a small bandgap of about 0.4 eV. In solid-state physics, a bandgap (also called an energy gap) defines an energy range in a solid where no electron states can exist. In graphs of the electronic band structure of solids, the bandgap refers to the energy difference (in electron volts, expressed as eV) between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band in insulators and semiconductors. Valence refers to an electron of an atom, located in the outermost shell (valence shell) of the atom, that can be transferred to, or shared with, another atom. Therefore, the bandgap is a significant factor determining the electrical conductivity of a solid. Substances with large bandgaps are generally insulators; those with smaller band gaps are semiconductors, while conductors have very small bandgaps (or nearly none at all) because the valence and conduction bands overlap.

First crystal radio sets used galena crystal as a point-contact diode capable of rectifying alternating voltages and current and detecting radio signals. The crystal was “tuned” with a sharp-pointed wire, known as a “cat’s whisker.” The radio’s operation required that the point of the wire in contact with the galena crystal be shifted about the crystal’s faceted surfaces to find a part of the crystal that acted as a rectifying diode. Today the crystal and cat whisker has been eliminated, and this component is called a diode. Diodes are manufactured with specific purpose-intended semi-conductance values. Semiconductors are the foundation of all modern electronics because anything that’s computerized, like AI or optoelectronics, relies on semiconductors.

Understanding the properties of a semiconductor relies on quantum mechanics to explain electrons’ movement through holes in a crystal lattice.The development of the first transistor in 1947 was made possible by Albert Einstein’s development of quantum mechanics theory. Yet, the path from Einstein’s ingenious quantum mechanics theory to the first manufactured transistor involved thousands of science and engineering hours, numerous failed attempts and billions of dollars. In other words, it was neither easy nor cheap.

Today’s semiconductors are made from material with an electrical conductivity value falling between a conductor, like copper, and an insulator, such as silicon (glass). Therefore, something in-between qualifies as a semiconductor. Semiconducting material exists in two types: elemental materials (pure metals: e.g., gold, silver, copper, etc.) and compound materials (alloys). Using compound materials provides a means to “tweak” the metal’s semiconductive properties (band gap) to achieve a particular component’s purpose. Semiconductors are at the heart of microprocessor chips, as well as transistors.

In the 1920s, Russian physicist Oleg Losev further advanced Henry Round’s electroluminescence research. Losev studied the distinctive properties of light-emitting diodes (LED) in radio sets and published several detailed scientific papers that quantified and documented his findings. Even though one might assume World War II’s wartime necessity would have furthered Losev’s research, it was largely overlooked until the late 1950s. Remarkably, history can’t provide a reason. Whether the scientific community simply didn’t realize the potential or whether LEDs were misunderstood remains a mystery.

In early 1961 while creating a laser diode, Bob Biard and Gary Pittman accidentally discovered the infrared light-emitting diode (LED) at Texas Instruments. In 1962, General Electric’s Dr. Nick Holonyak, Jr. developed the first visible red light LED. This development led the future discoveries of multi-colored LEDs, liquid crystal diodes (LCDs), organic LEDs (OLED) and made possible the expansion of optoelectronics. Applied variations of these diodes are incorporated in every optoelectronic device made today. From smartphone cameras, computers of all kinds and sizes, visible and IR spotting and ranging lasers, low light imaging devices, starlight-magnifying devices, passive and active infrared sighting and imaging devices, to HD digital multi-spectral micro-imaging, flat-screen monitors, high-intensity visible light LED light bulbs, flashlights, headlights, marker lights—the optoelectronic device list goes on and on.

The future for optoelectronics is bright (no pun intended). We are witnessing the exponential advancement of the computing power necessary to enable the marriage of artificial intelligence and optoelectronics. This makes possible the incorporation of features like instantaneous imaging analysis, navigation, ranging, all-weather day/night and spotting capabilities, a user heads-up display (goggles or visor), an encrypted data recording capability, an encrypted data-in-motion link to any smartphone for real-time social media-like or other communications connectivity and the uploading/downloading of updates and data, to name a few.

We are witnessing the exponential advancement of the computing power necessary to enable the marriage of artificial intelligence and optoelectronics.

AI-augmented optoelectronic devices include real-time image identification capabilities, target acquisition and classification, electronic picture stabilization, clutter reduction and/or elimination and a host of other effectiveness options that instantly manipulate, integrate and interoperate image data, target I.D. and firing solution and present it in an understandable intuitive, user-friendly format. At some point these devices will be cheaper to manufacture than traditional glass optics, smaller and lighter to carry, more rugged with a longer life expectancy and provide downloadable, upgradeable, fully-programmable capability with apps all in one AI-augmented optoelectronic multipurpose sight. Remarkably, this technology currently exists. It’s a matter of functionally combining it in a cost-effective package.

So why aren’t manufacturers offering the ultimate gun sight that includes some or all of this technology? The answer is simple. It is available, but it’s expensive. Manufacturers are slowly adding optoelectronic capabilities to their product lines. However, with the addition of sophisticated technology comes the inherent problem of user interface, training and familiarity. The analogy is similar to problems designers faced when teaching pilots to fly a drone. The engineers quickly realized that it was easier to train a computer game player to fly a drone using a game-like hand paddle and joystick than by using something that simulated an aircraft cockpit. The reason was user familiarity (muscle memory).

Most of today’s generation grew up playing computer games and they are at home with the gaming controls that all operate similarly. So, the transition to drone piloting using similar functioning game-like controls is logically straightforward. That is precisely the challenge optoelectronic device design engineers now face. They must design sophisticated devices with controls that closely mimic something that the users are already familiar with and know how to use. Like the drone controllers, the optoelectronic gun sight controls must look, work and feel much the same no matter what brand they carry. AI can help with this by operating most of the technically sophisticated tasks involved without the user even realizing it’s being done for him or her. But there is another concern that goes hand-in-hand with sophisticated AI operations—and that is one of user trust.

So why aren’t manufacturers offering the ultimate gun sight that includes some or all of this technology? The answer is simple. It is available, but it’s expensive.

Trust is necessary when AI is involved in the decision process. For example, things like AI target ID followed by instantaneous engagement requires user trust. Even more so if the AI is autonomously empowered to engage the target without human permission. The problem faced in this scenario is that AI operates at light speed and humans do not. If human permission is required in the AI decision loop (lacking full trust in AI making the correct decision), it will serve to severely slow the process, if not confound it. If a target image has to be transmitted for a human to look at it (evaluate) and then decide to push the “fire” button, that is an eternity at the speed AI operates at. The resulting lag seriously jeopardizes winning the fight. So it logically follows that an AI that has to get human approval to shoot will always be beaten to the draw by an AI that doesn’t. The good news is this problem can be overcome with sufficient AI-human trust. The bad news is the manufacturers aren’t yet working toward a common trust-based operating baseline.

There is always a downside to most things that appear almost too good to be true. In this case the penalty involves the Law of Physics consisting of two major obstacles, thermal fluctuations and random quantum fluctuations—a barrier known as the standard quantum limit. As AI-augmented optoelectronic devices become more powerful, so does the requirement for power and power equates to entropy. Additionally, the standard quantum limit for the noise of an optoelectronic device refers to the minimum level of quantum noise which can be obtained without the use of squeezed states of light (very pure vacuum-enhanced states of light with minimal noise). This translates to unavoidable noise distortion in optical amplifiers resulting from the spontaneous emission of excited atoms or ions. It’s somewhat analogous to the static one hears when a powerful amplifier is turned up to its maximum amplitude. It’s a problem that DARPA has been working on for a number of years and may never fully resolve.

DARPA is also working on the ability to automate the processing, exploitation and dissemination of massive amounts of full-motion optoelectronic imagery (“big data”) collected by U.S. and allied intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) assets in operational areas around the globe, using AI as a discriminator. The sheer volume of this raw imagery intelligence is impossible for human analysts to sort through, much less analyze and correlate, making AI analysis a necessity.

Following the 2011 U.S. withdrawal from Iraq, the Department of Defense (DoD) set its sights to adapt its warfighting tools and strategy for the next decade. Designated Project Maven, the DoD’s central focus is the employment of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) in the global fight against terrorism. Machine learning relies on the statistic that, in any large set of data, there will emerge clusters of data points that correspond to things in the real world and this data volume requires AI “deep learning.”

We mostly understand what AI and machine learning is, but what is deep learning (DL)? As the company FLIR explains it:

… deep learning is a form of machine learning that uses neural networks with many “deep” layers between the input and output nodes. By training a network on a large data set, a model is created that can be used to make accurate predictions based on input data. In neural networks used for deep learning, each layer’s output is fed forward to the input of the next layer. The model is optimized iteratively by changing the weights (values) of the connections between layers. On each cycle, feedback on the accuracy of the model’s predictions is used to guide changes in the connection weighting.

Traditional smart cameras combine a machine vision (optoelectronic) camera and a single-board computer running rules-based image processing software. This provides a great solution for simple problems like barcode reading or answering questions like “On this part, is the hole where it’s supposed to be?” Inference cameras excel at more complex or subjective questions like “Is this an export-grade peach?” When trained using known good (reference) images, inference cameras can easily identify unexpected defects that would not be recognized by rules-based inspection systems, making them far more tolerant to variability.

Inference cameras can be used to augment existing applications with rich, descriptive metadata. For example, these cameras can use inference to tag images which are passed to a host that carries out traditional rules-based image processing. In this way, users can quickly expand the capabilities of their existing [optoelectronic] vision systems.

This hybrid system architecture can also be used to trigger a traditional vision system for human viewing.

The combination of AI-augmented optoelectronics and ML running specialized DL algorithms designed to search for, identify, correlate and categorize specific items (even people) of interest in massive volumes of data is the future. Project Maven’s initial results in successfully exploiting “big data” by operationalizing AI/ML indicates DoD is transitioning from its historic hardware-centric organization to one that is AI/ML data-driven.

Another underway example (mentioned earlier) is the U.S. Army’s Integrated Visual Augmentation System (IVAS). IVAS consists of an optoelectronic Heads-Up Display (HUD) helmet-worn visor that will allow soldiers to experience AI-augmented reality. The IVAS includes an optoelectronic HUD, a body-worn computer and networked real-time communications and AI-capable data connectivity. The IVAS uses various optoelectronic imaging sensors, artificial intelligence and machine learning to provide a fully integrated day/night combat capability at the forward edge of the battlefield. It will be fully integrated into combined combat operations to increase lethality, mobility and soldier situational awareness. It will also enable soldiers to train in synthetic environments with the same equipment they use in combat.

Like high definition multi-spectral cameras and viewing screens that offer reliable performance under all light extremes and environmental conditions, sophisticated technology is slowly becoming the norm.

Another similar program along the lines of IVAS (but on steroids) is an AI/optoelectronic  upgrade to the M1 Abrams tank’s sensor suite, target display, tracking and fire control systems, and ability to provide and receive real-time targeting data to and from other tanks, and target designating sources like drones, spotter aircraft, ground units, etc. This system relies on optoelectronic eyes and AI targeting analysis and target prioritization. It’s no less than brilliant.

As this technology proliferates, one might imagine it will transition, at some point, to sighting devices tailored for the sporting firearms market. These devices could very well operate much like IVAS providing the hunter visor-worn real-time all-weather day/night information on terrain, range, bearing, target identification, target validation and firing solution. It could even be augmented with safety information that would alert a hunter of no fire safety zone vectors or other humans within his field of fire. It could also provide a synthetic training environment that a hunter could use for practice, hunt rehearsal or hunt replay. Consider this feature for competition shooters.

AI-augmented optoelectronic gun sights for sporting purposes may never have mobile phones’ commodity status, so recovering development investments always results in expensive end cost products. Nonetheless, history reflects the profit impact of most technology evolution is still far greater than anticipated, mainly resulting from the related spinoff technology. As we proceed further into this decade, AI-augmented optoelectronics is becoming the mainstay of all space exploration and operations. Semi-autonomous robots already see with optoelectronic eyes and think using AI/DL. Spacecraft rely on this technology to navigate, image, analyze and classify physical surroundings. Fully autonomous robots will soon conduct specific tasks like site selection and then build human habitats in advance of humans on the Moon and Mars. We will likewise see them conducting fully autonomous mining of asteroids for precious minerals. We live in exciting times. Space (we used to say “the sky”) is the limit for the future of AI-augmented optoelectronics—imagine the possibilities.

The United States dedicates significant resources in defense spending with the objective of keeping its competitors and numerous potential enemies focused upon discord between one another. A divisive new breed of technology is emerging that provides the necessary war-fighting capabilities to meet this challenge. The traditional rifle-carrying soldier will largely be replaced by the bionic warrior: a composite capability composed of human, artificial intelligence (AI), bionic, robotic and other high technology capabilities that can be brought to bear at both the strategic and tactical levels.

What is a bionic warrior? Is he envisioned as some kind of super-sophisticated robot that Hollywood often depicts? Is he a part human—part machine cyborg? To put the bionic warrior in the proper perspective, he should be thought of as an integrated family of capabilities with a scenario-driven configuration menu (plug and play). Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the foundation of the bionic warrior along with most every supporting piece of his kit. This is because the bionic warrior must, above all, have connectivity to, and interoperability with, his supporting family of capabilities, i.e., the numerous interoperable, immediately accessible, capabilities.

With the above said, let’s explore the bionic warrior concept, while remembering that everything in the bionic warrior’s kit has a relationship to AI in one form or another. Think of it this way: AI is the bionic warrior’s brain, and electrical energy is the heartbeat and blood that powers him. Component interoperability and configurability (mobility, sensors, weapons) provide the right capabilities (defense, offense, other) for mission-specific requirements. Let’s also keep in mind that this concept has begun to transition into the civilian market for sporting and personal defense applications. More on this later.

Artificial Intelligence

First, let’s consider the bionic warrior’s brain—Artificial Intelligence. While AI technology is developing at an exponential pace, today’s computing speed and memory thresholds limit its advancement. The domain of shared human and AI-controlled smart machines is still in its infancy. Combining human and artificial intelligence into functional synergetic processes that control weapon systems and their delivery platforms remains in sight but is still on the distant horizon.

The Department of Defense (DoD) recently ordered the creation of the Joint Artificial Intelligence Center (JAIC), which is intended to be DoD’s hub for AI research. This is not DoD’s first crack at incorporating AI into the war-fighting arena. In April 2017, DoD established a shadowy program, code-named Project Maven, in partnership with industry (primarily Google) to integrate machine learning and big data analysis. In layman’s words, it uses sophisticated artificial intelligence to analyze drone footage as a targeting tool. Having already proven itself successful, this capability will be folded into, and continue as, an element of the JAIC.

What can we expect to see when an AI-integrated bionic warrior does become reality? Since not all potential events can be anticipated, AI systems must function in extreme environments often hostile to human life, while managing large, fast-flowing data streams (big data) otherwise overwhelming to human capability.

In a recent article, Mick Ryan stated, “The primary reason that militaries need artificial intelligence is the convergence of large quantities of sensors, communications networks and an accelerating stream of data and information. As the quantity of information continues to increase, the capacity of humans to deal with it is not increasing commensurately. Indeed, humans are fast becoming the most sluggish link in decision-making. And while there is much ethical debate in the West about the application of autonomous weapon systems, as Ian Morris has written, “When robots with OODA [observe, orient, decide and act] loops of nanoseconds start killing humans with OODA loops of milliseconds, there will be no more debate.”

Today’s commercial smartphones market offers sobering insights into AI applications. For example, Apple’s Siri, Google’s Now, Microsoft’s Cortana, Netflix’s streaming algorithms and Amazon’s shopping sites all access large databases based on user input and provide decision support using tailored algorithms that leverage the user’s previous decisions with analogous solution consideration to millions of other users. Smartphones provide individual users access to the history of the world from a voice interactive device held in the palm of one’s hand.

Just as AI is proliferating the commercial smartphone market, it is also on the precipice of proliferating military weapons systems across the entire war-fighting continuum. The bionic warrior’s future weapons will have a collaborative learning capability and the ability to adapt themselves, even reconfigure themselves, as necessary, for maximum effectiveness while in the heat of battle.

They will come in a variety of shapes and forms and operate in semi-autonomous (man in the decision/control loop) and fully autonomous modes (no human input). They will both augment human war fighters by fighting beside them, as well as replace them completely with specialized ranks of their own. They will possess decision-processing cognition that far exceeds humans in both speed and quality. They’ll have superior survivability and lifespan and repair themselves in the event of malfunction resulting from non-destructive damage. Most importantly, they will change the face of conflict.

Both semi-autonomous and fully autonomous unmanned and robotic warriors will be employed by the thousands, even tens of thousands. Soon, most potential enemies will possess AI capabilities to achieve this capability to one degree or another. At that point we will see bionic warriors oppose one another in hostilities, and the winner will be determined by the most intellectually quick who can accurately bring to bear the right capabilities against their opponent the fastest. Think of it like an Old West gunfight with the option of instantaneously applying the right level of force to a perfect winning formula.

Today, there are numerous advanced robotic development programs that range from a human-worn robotic exoskeleton to semi- and fully autonomous robots and drones. As previously stated, AI provides the bionic warrior’s brain while electrical energy is the powering heart beat and blood. The provision of adequate electrical energy for long-term, un-plugged bionic warrior operations is a major engineering and physics challenge. Today’s systems primarily rely on battery power, but development of energy harvesting capabilities and other means of generation will be necessary for sustained independent bionic warrior operations. Let’s explore a sampling of some emerging bionic warrior technologies.

TALOS (Tactical Assault Light Operator Suit)

TALOS is US Special Operations Command’s initiative to build a high-tech bulletproof soldier-worn, load-bearing exoskeleton (suit) that may optionally provide life support and protection from environmental extremes. It will also likely provide protection from CBR (chemical, biological, radiological) agents and monitor soldier vitals. This suit will provide options for communications connectivity, target acquisition, firing solutions and be interoperable with multiple weapons systems ranging from PDWs (personal defense weapons) to marking targets for air strike targets. In the words of former USSOCOM commander, Admiral Bill McRaven, “It’s essentially an Ironman suit.”

USSOCOM intends TALOS to provide a divisive leap ahead for individual soldier war-fighting capabilities. However, a suit that achieves all the capabilities envisioned will be heavy. The armor alone will greatly restrict a soldier’s mobility, and with all the other envisioned computer and sensor bells and whistles attached, the suit will weigh in well above that which a man can carry. That is the purpose of the load carrying, strength-enhancing exoskeleton upon which all the weight will be borne.

As one might imagine, the most crucial hurdle is not developing the exoskeleton to carry all the weight. It’s providing an adequate power system to run the exoskeleton servos (miniature motors that power the joints and allow human-like free movement). TALOS power requirements far exceed today’s battery technology, so without some profound discovery in power generation, the exoskeleton will need to carry with it a multi-kilowatt, gas-powered generator about the home-use size, and that is unacceptable for many reasons. So, the wild card in this grand exoskeleton initiative is coming up with an adequate portable power source. USSOCOM says, “We’re working on it.”

How might TALOS technology be applied to the commercial market? It’s no leap to envision the adaptation of TALOS-like technology in prosthetics that operate like real human appendages and are thought-controlled by a direct human brain–AI link. Neither is it difficult to envision a TALOS-like suit adapted for First Responders, construction workers, heavy manufacturing, shipping and handling. Even a bare bones sportsman’s version might emerge that would assist in negotiating rough terrain, load carrying or camp construction. The potential technology benefits and spinoffs are immense. USSOCOM is working towards a TALOS prototype demonstration late in 2018.

Humanoid-Robot Soldiers

As part of the family of fully autonomous robots, there will be humanoid robots that will vastly replace the necessity of human-soldier battlefield presence in wars of the future. Humanoid capabilities could include most everything a human can do, from augmenting them with a human-virtual reality interface to Haptic control required for delicate operations, e.g., special operations, demining, surgery, construction, etc.

The commercial humanoid robot industry is well on its way to producing robots so life-like that it will take close examination to discern the difference between them and us. Coupled with AI, their abilities to learn and conduct human tasks will quickly exceed our own. In fact, they may well threaten human existence at some point in their evolution. They will most certainly change our culture.

The bionic warrior may lead them into battle either beside them, or from a virtual control location out of harm’s way. Robots will almost entirely replace today’s soldiers, and the winners of future wars might be those who can field the most robots with the most capabilities. Robot attrition resulting from conflict may become culturally acceptable, making warfare more palatable if confined to non-human surrogates. Regardless, the bionic warrior will be the puppet master in such conflicts, to one degree or another.

Drones, Mobility, Communications Connectivity

This category consists of readily configurable modular air, water (both surface and subsurface), land (both wheeled, tracked and foot-like) load carrying, fighting (armed) and reconnaissance/surveillance vehicles/drones that directly interact with and support operating forces. These platforms will eventually have the capability to reprogram, reconfigure and combine themselves into swarms to bring the right capabilities to bear.

AI connectivity links will provide individual soldiers the capability to control swarms of interoperable robotic systems to accomplish missions that have historically required large troop numbers. This human-robot teaming, coupled to AI machine learning, will become the future war-fighting norm. For example, a single soldier, controlling dozens, or even hundreds, of both air and land robotic systems, could recon and clear large urban areas that would otherwise require numerous troops to clear buildings, infrastructure tunnels and related outlying areas.

Bird Drones

It might sound far-fetched, but lifelike robotic birds that fly by flapping wings and that can land upon a telephone pole, or windowsill, are a reality. Reportedly, over 30 Chinese military and government agencies employ bird-like drones to surveil and track people of special interest in at least five provinces across China.

Code-named “Dove,” the Chinese “spy birds” program is being led by Song Bifeng, a professor at Northwestern Polytechnic University in Xian. Unlike unmanned aerial vehicles with fixed wings or rotor blades, these “birdbot” drones realistically mimic the flapping action of a bird’s wings to climb, dive and turn in the air. The aim of the Dove project is to field a new generation of biologically inspired drones that, like birds, are oblivious to human detection and radar. The robot flock is so lifelike that actual birds often fly alongside them.

How it works: Professor Bifeng claims each Dove drone is independently fitted with a high-definition camera, GPS antenna, flight control system and AI data link with satellite communication capability. The flapping mechanism comprises a pair of crank-rockers driven by an electric motor, while the wings themselves can deform slightly when moving up and down, which generates not only lift but also thrust to drive the drone forward. The birdbot’s body can also be covered in real bird feathers, making it nearly indistinguishable from real birds without close-up examination. Its flight characteristics also make the birdbot undetectable to modern RADAR and LIDAR systems.

Birdbot technology offers a wide range of possible uses beyond spying and military that includes first responder uses, environmental protection and urban planning. The sky is the limit for commercial applications and sporting uses.

Soft Robots and Smart Gels

In a capabilities demonstration recently released by Rutgers University–New Brunswick, engineers printed a 3-D soft robot composed of a 70% water smart gel. A small electrical current triggered this inch-tall, cartoonish-looking bot to deliberately flop about underwater, grab and pull objects and walk.

How it works: According to Rutgers, “The speed of the smart gel’s movement is controlled by changing its dimensions (thin is faster than thick), and the gel bends or changes shape depending on the strength of its salty water solution and electric field. The gel resembles muscles that contract because it’s made of flesh-like soft material (has more than 70 percent water) and responds to electrical stimulation.

We already know that walking is the least efficient means of underwater locomotion, but if the robotic soft form works, why not? Upscaling and equipping the smart gel body with a sensor capability, these soft robots could be submarine-launched in deep water or air dropped closer to shore where they would walk or swim to shore and provide hours or days of advance force surveillance before humans or more sophisticated bionic warriors are sent in.

Consider the soft bot’s gripping arm’s ability to pull an object inward, as it might be applied to the mouth of a robotic fish, or hidden inside the life-like robotic bodies of artificial mammals, birds or reptiles for overt intelligence collection. Such animals could be deployed, for example, to infiltrate high-security facilities, collect documents from restricted areas or even stealthily follow in the wakes of coastal patrols (pay attention USSOCOM). Operating underwater, soft bots, employing this technology, could recover intelligence from lost vehicles, sift through contraband tossed overboard and maybe at a larger scale even be used in demining operations.

The commercial range of applications for soft robots touch every arena from artificial human organ replacement to wide-ranging underwater operations that include searches, surveys, inspections, maintenance, emergency response and consequence management.

Cloaking

A Chinese research team at the State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves in Southeast University in Nanjing, Jiangsu province has developed a metamaterial that acts as an “invisibility cloak” for use on non-stealth military jets to help them evade radar detection.

How it works: Applied as a thin metallic membrane on an aircraft’s outer skin, metamaterial cloaking technology uses a fabricated layer composed of microscopic structures analogous to integrated circuits. When an electric current is applied, the metamaterial alters the way radio waves bounce off its surface to create an apparition image, and/or alter the return echo on a radar so that the aircraft disappears or appears to be something other than it really is. In conjunction with AI-controlled modulation, metamaterial can serve to transform the radar signature of an inflight aircraft rendering it unrecognizable.

The United States and several other countries have also heavily invested in metamaterial research and development for use in cloaking, but thus far, there have been no public reports on application or progress of this research program. It is safe to assume that this material would work equally as well when applied to boats, ships and land vehicles.

Metamaterial technology is by no means mature enough to operationally field. Current metamaterials are extremely difficult and expensive to mass-produce. Additionally, the metamaterial membrane in its current state of developmental maturity is somewhat fragile and won’t withstand a harsh combat environment. This reliability issue will no doubt be overcome, but for now the technology is unreliable.

Commercial uses for metamaterial may seem elusive, but it has many, ranging from high energy shielding, which could include directed energy or other radiation forms, to chameleon-like, color-changing outer garments for automatic background matching camouflage and even high fashion.

Directed Energy

Soldier-carried weapons will morph away from today’s kinetic reliance toward directed energy. Ballistic warfare will not disappear, but it will be out-gunned by directed energy weapons. Kinetic weapons will eventually morph to smart weapons that fire programmable smart projectiles configured for specific target lethality. However, as several first-world nations move closer to deployable laser weapons on land vehicles, ships and aircraft, man-portable laser weapons aren’t getting the same program attention of investment. Well, that’s true for all but China.

China recently went public with its latest man-portable directed energy weapon, claiming the ZKZM-500 is a non-lethal laser assault rifle, billing it as a “laser AK-47.” They say it can ignite clothing worn by the target at a half-mile. The ZKZM-500 reportedly has an AK-47 weight profile of around 6 ½ pounds and is powered by a rechargeable lithium battery that provides a 1000-shot capability—each burst lasting no more than two seconds, all for the production price of $15,000 a copy.

Scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences where the gun was developed revealed the ZKZM-500 can “burn through clothes in a split second,” leading to “instant carbonization” of organic tissue. The South China Morning Post also quoted these researchers, explaining, “If the fabric is flammable, the whole person will be set on fire. The pain will be beyond endurance.”

How it works: While some capability claims appear dubious, we must assume the gun exists with some form of operational capability, because performance is described and pictures are provided. Based upon performance claims and known limitations, we can deduct that it is a relatively low-energy laser generated by a solid-state system. However, beyond mention of the lithium power pack there is no description offered about the actual system design containing the required capacitors and optics that provides all that claimed power in a columnated energy beam. It is difficult to believe that the Chinese engineered a small, battery-powered, man-carried directed energy weapon that is powerful enough to incinerate a target at a distant half-mile without being refracted by environmental detractors like dust, fog, rain or snow. It is even harder to believe they’ve achieved that performance using a smart phone-like rechargeable lithium battery pack that provides a 1000-shot / 2-second burst capability. Finally, if the ZKZM-500 is a blinding laser (it’s clearly not eye safe if it incinerates clothing and flesh), it is strictly forbidden for use against humans by international convention. Yes, it’s still okay to shoot your opponent’s eyes out on the battlefield, but it’s against international convention to burn them out using directed energy.

The ZKZM-500’s performance claims are in marked contrast from existing directed energy weapons (and known prototypes) that require large power supplies and are mounted on platforms like ships, aircraft or large ground vehicles that can accommodate a laser’s demanding power requirements. Secondly, a laser beam must be held steady against a target (on the same spot) until the laser has burnt through whatever it has the design capacity to terminate. Firing bursts of lasers like bullets looks good in the movies, but doesn’t match the known law of physics in the real world.

The US Army is currently testing 5-kilowatt, high-energy lasers mounted atop Stryker-armored vehicles for protection against incoming enemy rocket, artillery and mortar fire. These laser-modified Stryker-armored vehicles are called the Mobile Expeditionary High Energy Laser (MEHEL). According to a July 2, 2018, press release from Raytheon, the Army awarded Raytheon Company a $10 million dollar contract to develop a “100 kilowatt-class laser weapon system primarily designed for integration onboard the Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles (FMTVs).” The release quoted Roy Azevedo, vice president of Intelligence, Reconnaissance and Surveillance Systems at Raytheon’s Space and Airborne Systems business unit, as saying, “The beauty of this system is that it’s self-contained. Multi-spectral targeting sensors, fiber-combined lasers, power and thermal sub-systems are incorporated in a single package. This system is being designed to knock out rockets, artillery, mortar fire or small drones.”

According to US Army officials involved in the program, “When it comes to directed energy weapons, sending more energy downrange is better, because it can always be dialed back if need be.” Once perfected for use on mobile platforms, Army officials expect directed energy technology will provide a low-cost alternative to kinetic weapon systems that require expensive ammunition and have a telltale report.

Cyber Weapons

The conflict asymmetric environment between global competitors is evolving toward a reliance on cyber dominance. The common focus aims to control technology development and exploit it, sustain pre-conflict conditioning and definition of the potential battlespace and to manipulate an opponent’s psychological will and physical war fighting capabilities against him. Therefore, cyber warfare is largely transparent, and it comes in many forms, making anything that is computer-controlled and/or data-dependent vulnerable to attack and corruption.

How does it work? In 2010 the US and Israel devastated Iran’s uranium enrichment centrifuges by introducing a cyber-weapon malicious code named “Stuxnet.” This digital worm caused centrifuges to spin out of control and essentially self-destruct, setting Iran’s nuclear weapon program back several years. Cyber weapons are not limited to things like scrambling centrifuge operations or shutting down factories.

Cyber weapons can be used effectively to kill people by turning petrochemical plants into bombs, derailing trains and causing electrical generating plants to self-destruct, for example. Everything that is networked and computer-controlled is vulnerable to attack. As AI matures, more sophisticated cyber weapons will appear. AI will be used to design, develop and employ extremely sophisticated cyber weapons with capabilities beyond our current ability to imagine. China is the only nation that has entire universities dedicated to cyber technology and cyber warfare. They are the equivalent of MIT, only they’re dedicated to cyber. China is both our main cyber competitor and threat, and they are rapidly advancing their capabilities throughout the cyber continuum.

Future wars will involve, in large part, industrial cyber sabotage. Cyber-attacks will be aimed against infrastructure networks that control power grids, liquid fuel distribution networks, all types of refining facilities, critical product manufacturing, transportation networks, ports and their cargo handling facilities, aviation, human services facilities that include water purification, waste disposal plants, hospitals, etc. To put the cyber threat in its proper perspective, all infrastructure elements must be considered vulnerable.

What does this all mean to the bionic warrior? We can safely assume that by the very nature of the highly sophisticated weapons, communications and AI network connectivity the bionic warrior has in his kit, that he and all those supporting him will be vulnerable to cyber-attack. His defense will be his AI counter-cyber link, which will constantly scan his operating system and network links for attack and instantaneously provide the appropriate defensive measures.

We can also envision the bionic warrior possessing a cyber-weapon capability that would be generated through his AI connectivity link. Should he find a cyber vulnerability and opportunity to conduct or support a cyber-attack, the necessary tools would be at his disposal to attack it. Think of it like calling for close air or artillery support in conventional war. Instead, the cyber warrior would mark the target and call in a cyber-attack against a specified vulnerability, or perhaps, a cyber counter-attack in his defense.

In closing, consider this. In reading this article today, we are the age to likely see everything discussed become a reality within the next several years. That puts us into one of two categories. We’re either unafraid of such advancements because we don’t understand, or don’t care about, the ramifications; or advancements like those discussed threaten us to one degree or another because we envision a wide-range of related consequences facing the future of our country and humanity, as we know it. Perhaps there’s a third category too—those who will become bionic warriors and like today’s warriors, professionally embrace it.

The Cyber Warrior

By Tom Verbeck

While the information battlefield remains consistent, cyber warfare is the new combat. Cyber weaponry is changing … that’s for sure … and it is affecting outcomes. In fact, the impact of cyber warfare is more dramatic than the World War I horse Calvary being slaughtered by machine guns and changing land warfare, forever.

In World War II, Tokyo Rose, Iva D’Aquino, an American, broadcasted English-language propaganda to Allied forces throughout the Pacific. And Axis Sally, Mildred Elizabeth Gillars, an American, was employed by the Third Reich in Germany for propaganda. These information operations, a form of cyber war, sought to affect the outcome of the war. Its effectiveness can be debated, but its influence on military operations is real.

Cyber warfare is changing war. Webster defines “War” as “a struggle or competition between opposing forces or for a particular end.” And, the end always remains a debate. The cyber warrior is not about gaining territory or land. The cyber warrior focuses on wealth and information no matter its location.

It’s a fact that war, today, still involves kinetic weapons, but future wars will be fought and won with new cyber weapons nested in computer code. Cyber weapons will affect, disrupt, change and alter the flow of information … before the war, during the battles and after the war. Future cyber warriors will have the capability to alter intelligence; corrupt logistics; steal and destroy mechanical weapons; bring winnings home by both overt and covert means; and remain invisible to their adversaries.

So, what is the cyber warrior of the future? First, the cyber warrior may, or may not, have any country of origin or allegiance. The cyber warrior may not even be a person. He may be military but maybe not. Operating from wherever a cyber warrior wants to, the cyber warrior can virtually roam the world looking for an optimal way to plug into the information technology highway. And without any regard for rules, a cyber warrior may operate from Germany but appear to be in Brazil, or from downtown Beijing and appear to be in Colorado.

The cyber warrior will have the means to alter intelligence. Much of today’s intelligence is gathered by unclassified means: Who is going where, what is the latest weather, and who is inventing what. Search engines like Google and logistics support by Amazon are easy pickings for the cyber warrior, and the ability to gather and alter that information is technically easy. Even mechanical military exercises carry their information vulnerabilities. And the overt cyber-attack on a military system will always be followed up with covert and unclassified gathering of information all around an exercise to see what can easily be understood.

The cyber warrior will corrupt logistics. The what, when and where of a supply chain for military, manufacturing or infrastructure essentials will all be easy pickings for the cyber warrior. The cyber warrior will be able to disrupt; change locations of delivery; adjust times of delivery and ultimately have goods delivered where cyber warriors want them, not where they are needed.

On the cyber warrior’s target list are major mechanical weapons to corrupt or destroy. An aircraft, for example, destined to land back at its home base, will receive new coordinates, its heads-up display will be altered, and the aircraft will land where the cyber warrior wants it to land. The convoy on its way to re-supply will receive another location, and new information traffic will alter its destination to where the cyber warrior wants it. And finally, weapons will be discharged, not at the enemy, but where the cyber warrior wants them to be discharged.

In the spring of 1993, a group of Senior US military officers visiting the former Soviet Union, now Russia, met with Senior Russian Military officers. When asked, “Why had the US won the cold war,” a large Russian Admiral stood up and said in Russian, “USSR would have matched you bomb for bomb, bullet for bullet, airplane for airplane, ship for ship … you won because the information wall came down.” It was clear—that day, the military’s bombs and bullets had not won the Cold War. Rather, the real war of ideas, economies and of peoples’ wants and needs was won in the field of information—cyber space.

US strategy-recognized bad actors on the cyber battlefield are both inside and outside the military. The ability to influence and change economies and affect the diplomatic field of battle … to influence, disrupt, corrupt or usurp the decision making of adversaries and potential adversaries while protecting our own … is real. Since the 1980s, with the changes in information technology, the weaponizing of this battle space is a formidable threat, both inside and outside the military. But to call any of this new or allude that we in the US are not aware of what is happening world-wide is false and wrong.

The cyber warriors do not always wear uniforms; they might not even be human. Today’s major industry leaders … from the Boeings/Northup Grumman’s to Mercedes Benzes to Bank of America … all have formidable cyber warriors in their employ. Normally found under the direction of the Company’s Chief Information Officer (CIO), now a Corporate Board officer, their job is to ensure their companies’ information is securely transmitted, received, stored and processed in near real time. This is not easy, and they are constantly under attack.

We have been defending ourselves since the beginnings of the Internet (1980s) and the ever-growing networked technology. We know Russia, China, Iran and North Korea routinely launch cyber-attacks on civilian areas, hacking private companies or undermining foreign governments and their militaries, using online tools to manipulate information and create digital propaganda to shape others’ opinions, while employing digital mercenaries to do the work.

The Chinese military stole US plans to the technically sophisticated F-35 Joint Strike Fighter, allowing Beijing to create the copycat J-31. Hackers with connections to the Iranian government were charged earlier this year for attacks on US banks. North Korean operatives released a trove of damaging emails from Sony as the entertainment company planned to release a comedy with an unflattering portrayal of the country’s leader. And they never left home to make it all happen.

In 2006, a European Partnership for Peace information technology interoperability exercise grew to include over 43 countries, on 4 continents. The global goal was interoperability of information systems. Evidence pointed out that information sharing, in todays’ complex world, required immediate interoperability. This exercise included Russia. Remarkably, the Russian exercise play was often limited to teletype—the most sophisticated cyber weapon they had in 2006—and they still remain technically behind most of the First World nations.

Real change in today’s cyber war is birthed in economics and the cheap availability of new cyber weapons and the advancement of artificial intelligence (AI). While a new aircraft will cost billions of dollars, the cost to play on the new information battlefield with a new cyber weapon is thousands of dollars. For example, each F-35A military jet is priced at $94.6 million. But a new cyber weapon, a fully decked out I MAC only costs $1,499.00. Comparatively, a new aircraft requires trained aircrew and maintainers, and when employed, the whole world will take notice of where it came from and what it destroyed. However, a state-of-the-art cyber computer system requires a knowledgeable computer hacker (a teen or millennial) whose motivation might be in gaining wealth or status. It’s happening today. In Georgia and in Ukraine full-scale cyber warrior operations are built into all military maneuvers.

Finally, the cyber warrior will remain invisible to his or her adversaries and even his or her partners. The cyber warrior is constantly moving within his or its information technology domain. The movements occur at the speed of light and aren’t inhibited by conventional barriers or human blocks. Where ever a cyber warrior wants to be, it is; and time and speed have no meaning.

The future cyber warrior may come from the military or not. He may be human or AI or both. Internationally, businesses and governments remain engaged in constant cyber war, and the only real question is who wins? And how will the cyber warriors divide up the new world?

•••

Thomas J. Verbeck was promoted to U.S. Air Force Brigadier General and was a former top 100 Federal Chief Information Officer (CIO). He has 40 years of IT leadership experience, and from 2002 to 2007, he served as the first Combatant Command Cyber J3 (responsible for offense and defense), J6 (CIO) and J9 (CTO).

Bohemian Karel Krnka is credited with developing the first gas-operated rifle in the late 19th century. Krnka’s early design, further improved on and perfected by Hiram Maxim and John Browning, led to today’s gas operating systems. Today, there are two gas operating system designs used in self-loading rifles and machine guns: direct impingement and gas piston. Direct impingement disciples assert that gas piston systems are heavy, less accurate and mechanically unsound. Gas piston operating system devotees claim that direct impingement systems foul easily, overheat quickly and jam often. So, exactly what is the functional difference between these two self-loading operating systems, and what are their strengths and weaknesses?

To begin, the review of a few basics might be helpful. A self-loading firearm must mechanically execute a specific set of sequential functions automatically—without user assistance—to be classified as self-loading. The sequence goes like this: The shooter pulls the trigger and the cartridge fires. The operating system needs to automatically extract that spent cartridge case from the chamber, eject it from the firearm and re-cock the hammer/striker. It must then load an unspent (loaded) cartridge from the magazine (or linked belt) into the empty firing chamber. The breech is then locked closed (the bolt is locked) and the gun is “in battery.” At this point, the weapon is ready to fire again. Both direct impingement and gas piston operating systems complete this sequence by using the high gas pressure generated by propellant (gunpowder) combustion to drive mechanical motion that, in turn, automatically cycles the action of the firearm.

What’s the difference between the two systems? For the purpose of familiarity, direct impingement will be exemplified by the AR-15, and we’ll use the AK-47 for the gas piston system.

In the 1950s, American firearms design engineer Eugene Stoner designed the AR-10 (chambered in 7.62 NATO as a competitor to the M14) and, shortly thereafter, the AR-15 (chambered in 5.56 NATO), which both employed Stoner’s unique direct impingement gas operating system. A selective fire semiautomatic/full-auto version of the AR-15, designated by the U.S. Army as the M16, was adapted for military service in the early 1960s during the Vietnam War. Its lightness, ease of handling/carry and ergonomic design later led to the semiautomatic AR-15 civilian variant that has been extensively produced since the early 1980s. Notably, direct impingement is nothing new and has been widely used for both military—in automatic/selective fire M16 variants—and civilian semiautomatic AR-15 versions for over 50 years. The AR-15 is, perhaps, the most multi-caliber adaptable and easily customized gun design in the history of firearms, and that feat begins with its direct impingement gas operating system.

Here’s how the direct impingement gas operating system works. When a cartridge is fired, a small portion of the high-pressure bullet-propelling gas is syphoned off either through a small hole (port) located along the barrel (in what is called a gas block) or from a gas trap located at the muzzle of the barrel. Both pretty much do the same thing. As the bullet passes by, a small portion of the high-pressure gas generated from the combustion of the propellant is redirected rearward to power the direct impingement operating system.

Specifically, as the high-pressure gas is syphoned off (we’re talking gas pressure at thousands of pounds per square inch), it is channeled rearward through a small gas tube. The bolt-end of the tube directly impinges around a slightly smaller diameter tube mounted on the bolt carrier mechanism. The high-pressure gas essentially blows the bolt carrier mechanism rearward, extracting the spent cartridge case from the firing chamber. As the bolt carrier mechanism moves rearward, several other critical processes take place. The spent cartridge is ejected, the gun’s hammer is re-cocked and a recoil buffer spring is compressed.

The buffer spring serves two critical purposes. It dampens the rearward impact of the bolt carrier mechanism and stops its backstroke travel. The compressed buffer spring then pushes the bolt carrier mechanism forward by spring-loaded action, stripping an unspent round from either a magazine or linked belt, loading it directly into the firing chamber and forcefully propelling the bolt back into battery (the bolt’s ready firing position known as “lock up”).

Therefore, as the direct impingement operating system cycles, extremely hot, high-pressure gas from the cartridge’s propellant combustion comes into direct contact with the bolt carrier mechanism with each and every shot fired. With it come unburned propellant, carbon residue and other nasty chemical and material contaminants resulting from propellant combustion. The consequence is rapid heating of the bolt carrier mechanism and bolt and partial sinking of that heat into the weapon’s upper frame and barrel. Extreme heat serves to break down most all lubricants necessary for the bolt carrier mechanism to function, which accelerates wear on the mechanism’s moving parts.

Whether founded or unfounded, direct impingement gas operating systems have a reputation for unreliability. While that claim is debatable in today’s ARs, most failure-to-feed malfunctions in direct impingement operating systems result from inadequate or improper lubrication of critical wearing parts, worn out buffer springs, worn out magazine springs (that no longer present the next round at the proper height for the bolt carrier to grab on the forward stroke) or the use of non-MIL-SPEC (undersize/oversize) ammunition. An unclean system is rarely the culprit for malfunction, unless fouling is allowed to accumulate regularly and not dealt with properly.

There are things you can do to reduce direct impingement operating system maintenance and reliability concerns. For example, use an upgraded nickel-boron-coated bolt and carrier set that is precisely machined from high-grade steel alloy. Nickel-boron provides a super-smooth, harder-than-chrome surface. This lubricious surface reduces friction to a minimum and is resistant to corrosion and abrasion. The slick finish also keeps carbon from adhering, which makes cleaning up much faster and easier than with standard steel parts. Another maintenance and reliability boon, in conjunction with the nickel-boron-coated bolt carrier group, is the use of a stainless steel or chrome-moly barrel. High-end ARs and parts, as described above, are readily available from a number of U.S. manufacturers specializing in new AR builds and replacement parts. In general terms, it’s okay to mix and match AR parts and assemblies, because they are built to AR-common MIL-SPEC tolerances (not so for gas piston systems).

As noted above, direct impingement operating systems require cleaning, proper lubrication and preventive maintenance. Parts within the operating system additionally require scheduled lifespan replacement to guarantee weapon system reliability.

There are also some lesser-considered factors that can quickly detract from direct impingement system performance and system reliability. While these factors are somewhat abstract to most, they deserve discussion. As mentioned at the front end of this article, Gene Stoner originally developed the AR-10 as a competitor against the M14. In that configuration, the AR-10 was designed with a 20-inch barrel length. Why 20 inches? There are several factors in play that merit discussion.

The laws of physics dictate that a projectile’s velocity cannot exceed the velocity of its propellant burn, assuming the propellant and projectile can be contained long enough to achieve a full burn. Additionally, propellant burn doesn’t just take place inside the cartridge case, which many might assume. The initial combustion begins inside the cartridge, but the rapidly expanding combustible gases continue to burn and expand right down the barrel, pushing the projectile/bullet up to optimal velocity as it exits the barrel. At the moment of exit, the bullet instantly becomes a ballistic projectile. This means every cartridge volume will ideally be mated to a barrel that has the optimal length for full propellant burn.

Barrel length is directly proportional to projectile velocity and optimal design performance. Because every round has an optimal barrel length, a gun’s barrel length plays several roles. Depending upon the cartridge being fired, the barrel length provides an extended linear combustion chamber necessary for the powder charge to fully burn and expand, so the projectile (bullet) being fired has time to reach its optimal velocity before exiting the barrel. This is to say that a barrel that is too long—one that exceeds the time/length required for a full propellant (powder) burn—serves no purpose other than to add weight to the gun. A barrel that is too short—one that doesn’t allow enough time for a full propellant burn—won’t provide the projectile its full velocity (ballistic potential) in terms of range or impact energy.

This leads us to the M16’s barrel length. Gene Stoner originally designed his AR with a 20-inch barrel to achieve maximum performance. However, since the first Gulf War, close-quarters battle (CQB) has been a common practice throughout the ongoing global war on terrorism. CQB is fought up close and dirty in restricted spaces generally associated with tight urban environments. CQB requires a short-barreled gun that can be easily wielded in tight spaces, and the M16’s 20-inch barrel was considered too cumbersome.

To better meet the new CQB operational environment, the U.S. Military adopted Colt’s M4 variant of the M16 in 1994. There was just one problem with the M4’s shorter 14.5-inch barrel length. The shorter barrel requires the gas port to be positioned further to the rear. The result of moving the gas port rearward is a decreased dwell time, which is the delay between the bullet passing the gas tube hole (the port where the gas is syphoned off for the operating system) and then exiting the barrel. The decrease in distance from the bolt face to the gas port in the M4’s 14.5-inch barrel resulted in a significantly increased port pressure. For example, the M16’s 20-inch barrel port pressure runs at around 10,000 pounds per square inch, while the short-barreled M4 has a port pressure of 17,000 pounds per square inch.

Gene Stoner didn’t design his direct impingement operating system to endure such high pressures and the resulting stresses. Also, 14.5 inches of barrel don’t provide the sufficient opportunity for full burn for the 5.56 NATO cartridge. In summary, changes in barrel length also changed the physics involved, which accounts for several somewhat negative consequences. Additionally, more unburned propellant gases/materials will exit the muzzle of a shorter barrel more quickly. As these hot combustible gases mix and become enriched with the atmospheric oxygen, they instantly ignite. The result is a bright muzzle flash from a short-barreled weapon. Likewise, the gas that is syphoned off through the port (gas block) to power the operating system on a short barrel is full of unburned combustible material and particulate contaminates. So, for direct impingement systems, it can be assumed that the shorter the barrel, the dirtier, hotter and less reliably it will operate.

There are remedies to help mitigate the problems inherent in short-barreled direct impingement gas operating systems, but one cannot beat the laws of physics. Since incomplete propellant burn is the basis for most problems associated with short barrels, a faster, cleaner-burning propellant can be used. This also has its negative consequences, since a faster burn rate always equates to more heat. Ammunition of this type can readily cause firing chamber and barrel throat erosion (permanent damage) not to mention excessive heating in auto-fire or semiautomatic rapid-fire mode. Excess heat can cause round “cook-off,” and that is unacceptable from a safety perspective.

Many short-barreled AR enthusiasts will add an adjustable gas block onto their gun to better control the gas volume syphoned off to the operating system. Adjustable gas blocks can be effective in controlling the cyclic rate of the gun’s operating system, but they will do little to reduce fouling.

Others mount a sound suppressor on their short-barreled AR; this not only suppresses its ferocious report, but also reduces muzzle flash. This solution, while seemingly workable, still doesn’t resolve the dirt and other unburned contaminants being channeled into the direct impingement gas system (and collecting in the suppressor itself). This most often results in reliability degradation of the overall gun by increasing gas system backpressure, which equates to more dirt going into the operating system.

The adage that “death is a small price to pay for looking cool” plays a central role in the way many shooters configure their ARs. Yes, their highly tricked out short-barreled ARs look cool, but they’ll likely die if they rely upon it in a real gunfight. In reality, barrel length directly relates to reliability, and they’ve overlooked that critical component.

How Does the Gas Piston Operating System Differ?

Russian weapon designer Mikhail Kalashnikov was not the first to employ the gas piston operating system design. However, his unique 1947 adaptation of it in his venerable AK-47 (standing for Avtomat Kalashnikova model 1947) was a game-changer for the Soviet armed forces, their allies and later many developing nations.

How does a gas piston operating system differ from a direct impingement system? While the two operating systems are similar at first glimpse, there are a few key differences in their operation. As a matter of design, gas piston operating systems are heavier (more robust) than direct impingement operating systems, and that’s a necessary design evil.

As with direct impingement systems, the firing process begins with high-pressure propellant gases being syphoned off through a small hole along the gun barrel. Rather than forcing the gas into a tube that channels it rearward into the direct impingement system, the gas is channeled directly into a separate cylinder containing a piston that parallels (above or below) the gun barrel.

A push rod, either directly connected to (as in long-stroke systems) or disconnected from (as in short-stroke/tappet variants) the bolt group, is positioned directly behind the piston. The push rod interfaces with the bolt carrier mechanism contained in the gun’s receiver. The purpose of this push rod/connecting rod is to mechanically transfer the piston’s gas stroke linear energy rearward to cycle the bolt carrier assembly.

Here’s how it works. As the high-pressure gas from the barrel enters the cylinder, it acts directly upon the face of the piston. The rapidly expanding high-pressure gas pushes the piston (and its connecting/push rod) rearward. This, in turn, drives the bolt carrier assembly rearward. Like the direct impingement operating system, this rearward movement extracts and ejects the spent cartridge, cocks the hammer and compresses a recoil spring. The spring powers the bolt carrier assembly forward for the return stroke, chambering a fresh cartridge and putting the bolt back in battery (lock up).

Common to all gas piston operating systems is their reliance on tuning the gas port size for proper critical operating gas volume, along with the physical mass required of the operating parts (including the cylinder, piston, push rod and so on) and recoil spring pressures necessary to power the forward stroke.

Unique to the gas piston operating system, the hot gas used to operate the system never comes into direct contact with the bolt or bolt carrier assembly. This translates to a gun that operates more coolly and cleanly. In fact, on most designs, the bolt carrier can be removed immediately after firing and handled without burn protection. This is advantageous in automatic fire weapons, should emergency takedown be required to make a fix in the field. This is a primary reason that almost all modern machine guns and assault rifles (save the M16 and its variants) employ a version of the gas piston operating system instead of direct impingement systems.

There is a tradeoff, however, for the gas piston system remaining cool and clean, and that is its heavier component mass. Its cylinder, piston and bolt carrier connecting rod (push rod) add weight. As the piston system cycles, the movement of the weighty mass results in snappier recoil, which results in reduced accuracy, especially for quick follow-up shots and full-auto fire bursts.

Heavier recoil also contributes to metal fatigue. That is a primary material design concern regarding assault rifle and machine gun receiver life expectancy. Recoil over thousands of rounds causes receiver stretching and metal fracture from fatigue. Therefore, machine gun receivers are usually made from steel, and they are robust. Knowing that different metals have different expansion coefficients when heated, engineers attempt to use metals with similar coefficient characteristics to produce a gun with an acceptable lifespan (calculated in thousands of rounds fired). The use of exotic metals in gas piston systems is largely avoided because of the cost—both of the metal and the special machining/fabrication processes involved.

Gas piston system parts are not interchangeable between manufacturers, because they all employ their own proprietary pistons and bolt carriers. Since there is no set standard for the gas piston operating system, only brand name manufacturers’ parts can be used, and those usually require professional gunsmith or factory fitting.

Which System Is Better?

The direct impingement system has arguably proven itself under virtually all battlefield conditions and environments for over half a century on the AR-15/M16 platform with unmatched modularity. Replacement parts are inexpensive, easy to obtain and generally made to a set MIL-SPEC standard. By design, and for the reasons previously discussed, direct impingement system recoil is lighter than gas piston system recoil in the same caliber.

In the long-stroke gas piston system, the piston is mechanically fixed to the bolt group and moves through the entire operating cycle. This means that the combined mass of the piston, piston rod and bolt carrier assembly adds to the entire assembly’s linear momentum, enabling more positive extraction, ejection (on the back stroke) and more reliable chambering and lock up (on the forward stroke). Long-stroke systems can be found in such weapons as the M1 Garand, AK-47, Bren light machine gun, FN MAG, FN FNC, FN Minimi and M249 Squad Automatic Weapon.

The negative consequence of this system is the disruption of the point of aim on the second and following shots in rapid semiautomatic or automatic fire modes. This results from the rapidly changing center of mass during the action cycle, abrupt stops at the beginning and end of bolt carrier travel and the use of the barrel as a fulcrum to help drive the bolt rearward. Also, a higher gas volume is required to operate the heavier gas piston system, which, in turn, requires more massive operating parts—a design Catch-22.

In the short-stroke (or tappet) system, the piston is not connected to the operating system’s bolt group. As in the M1 carbine, it may directly push the bolt group assembly rearward. Or, like in the SKS, Armalite’s AR-18, the FN SCAR and Beretta’s A301-303 shotgun, it may operate the bolt group by pushing a connecting rod. In either design, the gas piston’s linear energy is imparted in a short, abrupt rearward push (short-stroke). The gas piston’s rearward motion is immediately arrested, leaving the bolt carrier assembly to continue through its operating cycle from the piston-generated kinetic energy (rear stroke). Thus, the short-stroke gas piston design has the advantage of reducing the total mass of recoiling parts compared to its big brother, the long-stroke gas piston.

Less recoiling mass equates to better control of the weapon. Less mass means less inertial impact at either stroke end of the bolt carrier travel, and that means less wear on the operating system and receiver. However, there are other dynamic factors in play in short-stroke designs. In many of these designs, the piston sharply impacts the bolt carrier group above the center of gravity, causing long-term wear from peening or accumulative damage to the bolt carrier and the receiver guide rails that champion the bolt carrier assembly’s rearward and forward stroke.

With the preceding in mind, it should be obvious that both direct impingement and gas piston operating systems have strengths and weaknesses unique to their individual design. Some of their weaknesses can be mitigated, but in general terms the operating system’s application should be purposely considered in the gun you choose. The gun’s performance history should additionally play a major role in this selection. Remember, performance is not a matter of belief; it’s a matter of evidence. Understand what you’re buying and choose wisely—your life may depend upon it.

You’ve been texting with your friends and not paying attention to your surroundings. You suddenly hear commotion close by and detect rapid movement coming at you. You’re being attacked! You’re startled—but what now? You need to get off the X. Your very survival depends on it!

What exactly is situational awareness, and what is the “X?” We’ll begin with situational awareness.

In cognitive psychology, “situational awareness” refers to the dynamic mental model of one’s constantly evolving situation. It is one’s constant awareness and understanding (your picture) of the surrounding environment and other situation-specific factors from which the ability to successfully enable rapid and appropriate decisions and effective actions is based. Situational awareness means maintaining continuous awareness of your surrounding environment—and to consciously and accurately recognize a potential threat(s) and take the action(s) necessary to avoid or mitigate a potentially negative outcome.

A person with good situational awareness is often said to have a “good feel” or a “good picture” of his surroundings and the situation he is exposed to at any given time. Therefore, good situational awareness encompasses the acquisition, interpretation, comprehension and utilization of (often dynamic) available information in order to anticipate future developments, make intelligent decisions and control risk. More simply, it means knowing what is going on around you so you can figure out what to do and not do if things begin to go bad.

Situational awareness is the tool used to stay off the X, or get off the X should you find yourself on it. So—what is the X? The X is the spot where the attacker aims to strike or is striking. Remember the Road Runner cartoons? Wile E. Coyote always stands on the X. That is the spot where he always gets clobbered. The same is true in real-life. The X is the spot you must avoid or move away from immediately.

This brings us to the OODA decision process originated (circa 1960s) by Col. John Boyd, USAF (Ret), a fighter pilot and military strategist. This dynamic process consists of four overlapping and interacting progressions: Observe, Orient, Decide and Act. While OODA has direct application in military strategy and operations, the first responder community and business, its importance to self-defense and getting off the X is paramount to survival.

Humans are wired from birth (although most don’t realize it) to employ a decision-making cycle; we observe-orient-decide-act to one extent or another. Some of us consciously hone this process, while many never gain a realization that they have it available to them. Regardless, anyone who can observe, comprehend their observations and rapidly react to unfolding events more quickly than an opponent, can “get inside” their opponent’s decision cycle—and in most scenarios, gain the advantage.

The prime objective is to survive by avoiding (the X) or defeating an attack. Therefore, your decision for a particular course of action is based on raw observations of the evolving situation coupled with analytical comprehension of the problem you’re addressing. This requires constant situational awareness.

According to Boyd, “the winning strategy is to get inside your opponent’s OODA loop, not just by making your own decisions quicker but also by having better situational awareness than [your] opponent, and even changing the situation in ways that [your] opponent cannot monitor or even comprehend. Losing one’s own situational awareness, in contrast, equates to being out of the loop.”

Boyd further distilled his thinking with his following explanation: “The OODA key is to obscure your intentions and make them unpredictable to your opponent while you simultaneously clarify his intentions. That is, operate at a faster tempo to generate rapidly changing conditions that inhibit your opponent from adapting or reacting to those changes that suppress or destroy his awareness. Thus, a hodgepodge of confusion and disorder occur to cause him to over- or under-react to conditions or activities that appear to be uncertain, ambiguous or incomprehensible.”

Can a person train to develop situational awareness? The answer is YES. All you need to do is pay attention to your surrounding environment. That begins at home and follows you every time you leave your home, while you’re out and about shopping, dining, running errands, on your way to work, while at work, at the gym—where ever you are. You consciously perceive your surrounding environment, comprehend its meaning and project your potential status within that picture with the aim of avoiding the X. If caught on the X in an attack, take immediate action to get off the X and rapidly move away from it. Always remember, fear is a reaction; getting off the X is a decision.

About now you’re probably asking how does one move off the X? To begin, the direction you choose to move factors into your survival. You need to quickly determine the direction(s) from which the threat is coming at you. At this moment, the key is to move laterally away from the threat axis if it’s possible to do so.

More simply, when the attack is heading toward you, you need to get out of the way. Even as little as one step, left or right, means the attacker must now adjust to you. Moving off the X, away from the spot where the attacker is striking, will increase your chance of survival. Practice this lateral movement at home in mental scenarios. Incorporate it into a daily training regimen both in thought and in deed. Practice your lateral movement to the point it becomes second nature. At that point you will react appropriately.

If you carry a concealed weapon or you keep a gun on your bed stand, practice drawing your (unloaded) weapon, pointing in the direction of the threat, while stepping laterally. If you can’t step laterally and get out of the way, step rearward as quickly as you can, opening the distance between you and the attacker, until you have room to move laterally away from the threat axis. In other words, pick a direction and get off the X. Find some cover and get behind it. You now have a fighting position and an instant advantage.

Several states have castle laws requiring that you attempt to vacate the threat area from an armed intruder (even inside your own home) before defending yourself with lethal force. Moving off the X will provide a justification if questioned by police. While tucked in bed and surprised, moving off the X may be difficult to accomplish, but not impossible with some practice.

Dry-fire practice with your unloaded firearm in your home. Begin by identifying all potential threat entry points and cover locations around the house. Cover points need to consider the fact that bullets easily penetrate furniture, drywall and hollow doors. Cover locations need to be reinforced points that bullets won’t readily penetrate. Work backward identifying these points to the location where you intend to make your stand using lethal force. Practice by taping paper pie plates along your path of retreat to represent your target(s) and dryfire on them as you move. Practice this drill under all lighting conditions and all times of the day and night when you might have to execute such movement for real. You can’t practice this drill too many times. Practice until it becomes muscle memory (second nature).

If you have the luxury of being able to practice getting off the X on an indoor or outdoor (better) range where you can draw and shoot while moving laterally away from the target, practice this evolution going left and right of the target. Practice your draw and your engagement shots while executing your lateral move. Practice this technique until you can reliably hit your target(s) at various distances. Practice the technique engaging several targets on two or more separate threat axis and distances from you. Practicing from a static position without drawing and moving, which is what most ranges demand, accomplishes little with regard to your readiness. Previously described dry-fire rehearsals in your home will accomplish more.

When you’re out and about in public, constantly identify potential threat scenarios and cover points like columns, corner walls, curbs or parked vehicles that you can crouch behind or fight from. Visualize your lateral movement to these locations and leap-frog away from them to another cover location nearby, and another, and so on to avoid the X. If you can walk through this scenario to practice your potential path to cover, do so.

Finally, for you to have the utmost situational awareness you must be constantly alert. How many times do we get to work and don’t remember the drive there or anything about the subway ride? This zombie-like state of mind is known as being in the “white.”

You go through your daily routine more or less numb to your surroundings for the first hour (or more) of the day. As you slowly wake up, your perception of the things surrounding you increases. This state of mind is known as being in the “yellow.” You’re alert enough to react but not hyper-sensitive to sounds, colors, movement, etc., and you’re not analyzing your surroundings for threat identification and counter-threat escape or evasion. When you’re in the “red” you’re most alert, and you’re ready to react appropriately.

We all subconsciously transition through these white, yellow and red states of awareness on a daily basis. The problem is that many of us never leave “yellow” unless “red” is scared into us. There is a way to train yourself to make the transitions consciously. The military and law enforcement use a conscious method that moves them to their highest state of awareness. They practice ramping up from “white” to “yellow” before leaving their home. This is achieved by consciously becoming fully awake.

Mental drills, like watching the morning news or listening to news radio and analyzing what you’re seeing and hearing work to move you from white to yellow to red. When dressing, pay attention to the colors and furnishings in your surrounding area, repeat them mentally or aloud. When driving, identify what you’re seeing mentally or aloud. Make a conscious attempt to analyze and understand what you’re looking at. This exercise will quickly move you to a higher state of readiness. The objective is to be able to immediately move to “red” and take the action necessary to avoid the X, or move immediately off it, should a threat arise. Again, just like the dry fire drills and lateral practice movement, being in the right frame of mind is equally important to practice.

There are other things you can do to lower your potential to be surprised or caught on the X. For example, when you board an elevator, always stand in one of the front door-facing corners. A gang tactic used today is to “rush” onto an elevator as the door opens. If you’re right handed, stand in the front left corner facing toward the door. If the elevator is rushed, those storming aboard will likely pass by you. Secondly, you now have your strong side angled toward an assault directed your way. You can fend it off and push yourself through the open doors, out of the elevator (off the X), or you can draw, if need be, and hip-shoot a weapon wielding attacker in close quarter defense.

Additionally, while you’re waiting for an elevator, stand to one side of the doors, preferably the side where you have an open exit from the area where you’re standing. The bad guys sometimes charge off an elevator at those waiting as the doors open. Stay close to the wall and face toward your planned exit direction.

There is much written and available on the above subjects. Some of it is complete trash, some of it is gospel. Hopefully, what you have just read will point you in the right direction and give you a basis to learn more. Remember, fear is a reaction, getting off the X is a decision. Situational awareness is an imperative.

What is a thread-locking compound, and what is its purpose? Thread-locking compounds are designed to prevent threaded fasteners from becoming loose when exposed to vibration and other counter-torquing forces that cause the screw or nut to back away from its tightened seat. Ultimately, this circumstance results in mechanical failure if thread-locking measures are not taken. This is a common phenomenon seen in all engines/motors, mechanical devices of all purposes and—yes, that’s right—firearms. While thread-locking compounds are employed in firearms for many purposes, the most common is to lock the screws used in rail and scope mounts.

Numerous thread-locking compounds are available online and from gun, automotive and hardware stores. In general, thread-locking compounds are adhesive-based, cure anaerobically and only work on metal threaded surfaces. The majority are formulated for specific ranges of temperature and pressure.

Most thread-locking compounds require the application surfaces to be near perfectly clean in order to achieve adequate surface bonding for proper thread-locking performance. They are additionally formulated for permanent performance where a screw, bolt or nut will likely never need loosening, and for semi-permanent performance where a screw, bolt or nut will probably need to be unfastened for maintenance or loosened for readjustment. In either case, when disassembled, residual thread-locking compound must be entirely removed from the metal surfaces where it was previously applied, prior to any reapplication in the reassembly process. Those of us who have experienced this disassembly, cleaning and reapplication process can affirm that the process is somewhat meticulous and absolutely time-consuming.

Vibra-Tite VC-3 Threadmate, manufactured in the USA by ND Industries, with headquarters in Clawson, MI, entirely resolves the above issues. VC-3 utilizes a special blend of acrylic resins to prevent fasteners from loosening—even under extreme vibration. VC-3 is a powerful locking and sealing coating for threaded fasteners that works on the principle of “friction through viscosity.” Working much like a nylon insert self-locking aircraft nut, VC-3 holds parts in place even during extreme vibration, and it also resists gas and liquid leakage by acting as a seal between mated threads.

Designed for use on any external and internal threads of virtually any material or finish, VC-3 is not an adhesive or an anaerobic. Unlike traditional liquid lockers that cure to form a hard bond, VC-3 is a blend of resins designed to remain flexible and absorb vibration. This unique difference makes fasteners coated with VC-3 truly adjustable, removable and reusable.

Pre-cleaning of parts is not required except for wiping off any visible oil, grease or dirt for optimal performance. VC-3 dries to the touch within seconds of application and coated parts are ready for assembly in just a few minutes. Additionally, parts coated in VC-3 require no cleaning or removal of previous VC-3 material. VC-3 can be reapplied directly over the previously coated surfaces, and the new will bond to the old.

The features of Vibra-Tite VC-3 Threadmate are numerous. For example, parts coated with VC-3 have an indefinite shelf life and can be stored indefinitely before use. This means you can prepare fasteners in advance so they are ready to use any time. VC-3 works on both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most platings, wood and plastic screws, creating a reliable, powerful thread lock and seal. It won’t harden like traditional threadlockers.

Additionally, VC-3 uniquely offers multiple reuses because it remains a thick, resilient, taffy-like “viscous resin.” Its cold flow properties actually minimize galling or stripping of soft threads during reuse. Using steady pressure and standard hand tools, parts coated with VC-3 can easily be adjusted, removed and reused.

Compared to anaerobic adhesive threadlockers, VC-3 is a low-cost highly versatile alternative. It works on fasteners of any shape or size, from tiny eyeglass screws to large construction bolts. It works with all internal or external threads under virtually all environmental extremes. Unlike anaerobic threadlockers, VC-3 threaded parts can be air dried and then installed into an underwater mating part in both fresh and salt water. VC-3 won’t deteriorate or change in viscosity with prolonged submergence. This unique attribute alone puts VC-3 head and shoulders above other thread-locking compounds.

Today’s computer-aided design, precision machining processes and exact-ing quality assurance offer a consistent level of firearms accuracy never before achieved in off-the-shelf firearms. This result is not only realized in today’s machining and fabrication processes, but in metallurgical and material quality as well. The outcome is firearms that shoot with acceptable accuracy and operate reliably right out of the box. But firearms manufacturing tolerances are tricky things—they can work for or against you depending upon the purpose of your firearm. Additionally, it is very easy to take a perfectly fine shooting gun and mess it up beyond repair without realizing one is doing so.

As a general rule of thumb, tolerance “slop” increases reliability but reduces accuracy and vice versa. This is to say that tighter fit-ting tolerances (less slop—as found on precision rifles and handguns) increase accuracy. Looser tolerances (more slop—as found on military assault weapons and many sport-ing firearms) increase reliability but sacrifice accuracy in the process. This is a discussion that is seldom considered by all but precision shooters (and even fewer weapon designers), and it is a primary contributor to weapons’ accuracy. On the flip side, sporting firearms attempt to find a happy medium between competitive accuracy and field-use reliability. Most precision rifles and handguns used in competition (and other purposes like sniping) require extreme accuracy. As such, they are largely hand-built in the firearms manufacturer’s custom shop or by a reputable precision gunsmith who specializes in such things. These firearms are made to meet a specific purpose.

They possess competition barrels, competition triggers, carefully lapped, hand-fitted parts, tuned competition springs and are tweaked for weight and balance. Taking an off-the-shelf field gun and turning it into a precision firearm, in nearly all cases, mean re-barreling, replacing most all moving parts with hand-fitted parts and competition springs. It’s an expensive and somewhat timely process that is usually done by professional gunsmiths who specialize in accurizing a particular brand or type of firearm. Accurizing is not something a hobbyist can accomplish by changing out cheap unfitted factory parts with expensive aftermarket parts, even though the aftermarket for such parts advertises otherwise.

Weapon Wear

A major degrading influence on accuracy is weapon wear. Clearly, metal-on-metal friction upon a gun’s operating system, e.g., parts that move and require lubrication, will, over time, become worn and sloppy. Things like bolts, bolt carrier groups, firing pins, slides, hammers, triggers, safeties and magazine releases, etc., will become worn over numerous firing cycles. Judicious cleaning and lubrication will slow the wearing process and extend the part–tolerance lifespan, but wear will occur nonetheless. The important point here is that firearms’ parts don’t wear evenly or uniformly at the same rate. For example, an AR’s bolt carrier group (BCG) guide rails may wear faster than the bolt lugs. The bolt will still go into battery on the forward stroke, but the BCG is worn outside the manufacturer’s specified tolerance (sloppy), causing unreliable BCG travel that, in turn, results in chambering/head spacing issues. The cumulative result is loss of accuracy and a higher malfunction potential.

Barrel Life

Accuracy is also a factor of barrel life. A little understood factor is why barrels lose accuracy over time or for some other unexplainable reason. Let’s assume your precision rifle has a precision match-grade barrel. It has performed superbly over many years, but you notice the gun’s accuracy is slowly dropping off. You’ve meticulously maintained your gun. The entire gun’s moving parts are tight and within tolerance. In fact, you’ve only fired about 1,600 rounds though the barrel and cleaned the bore every 15 to 20 rounds fired. So what else could it be?

Believe it or not, a barrel’s useful life is measured in bullet-in-barrel seconds, and most barrels wear out in only a few seconds. While this may seem to be a rather abstract, if not absurd presumption, it is exactly the opposite. Let’s walk through this using another example. Let’s say we have a bolt rifle with a 24-inch barrel, and it’s chambered to fire a round with a bullet velocity of around 3,000 feet per second (fps). At that velocity, the bullet will transit the 24-inch barrel in about 1/1500 of a second. This translates to your rifle actually having a bullet-in-barrel operating time of about .002 seconds each time you fire a round. Why is this important and so what?

In the finance world, the term “follow the money” is how spending is tracked. In the firearms world, we track the bullet—so here goes. Continuing the example above: At the moment of firing, the bullet starts at zero velocity and accelerates through the bore at the speed of the rapidly expanding propel-lant gases. Even though the bullet exits the muzzle at 3,000 fps, the actual zero velocity to 3,000 fps takes .002 seconds. Therefore, the actual time the bullet resides in the bore is .002 seconds, and this is the number used to calculate bore life. Therefore, if your barrel is rated to have a useful life of 3,000 rounds, its transcribed bore life is about 5 seconds. This figure will obviously vary depending upon the caliber, bullet velocity and length of barrel, because the bullet is not necessarily under constant acceleration (especially in lower velocity bullets traveling down longer length bores).

So how is this important to accuracy? In recognition that the .002 seconds in-bore time is a general number, it is a good average number to use for most centerfire gun barrel life calculations. Remarkably, it means the average gun has an accurate cumulative bul-let-firing barrel lifespan of only 4 to 10 seconds, maybe less. As mentioned, different calibers have different barrel life expectancies. A .300 WinMag barrel has a life expectancy of about 1,000 rounds (that’s barely a 2-second barrel life); .243 Win/.284/6.5mm barrels mostly experience an accuracy drop off around 1,500 rounds (that’s less than a 3-second life expectancy). On the larger-lived side, .308/7.62 NATO barrels lose accuracy around 5,000 rounds (that’s almost a 10-second life expectancy and old age as barrels live).

The object is to narrow the variablesto the greatest extent possible with the goal of achieving the tightest groups.

Logically, one of the reasons NATO has stuck with the 7.62×51 round is its offering of a somewhat long-lived barrel life expectancy. We would hope that USSOCOM has considered the barrel life dynamic before switching its machine guns and other firearms from 7.62 NATO to 6.5 Creedmoor, as has been recently advertised. As one might easily deduce, a machine gun that fires 800 to 900 rounds a minute can quickly reach its barrel life expectancy in a few seconds of sustained firing if it’s chambered in a short-lived caliber. Furthermore, most machine guns come with one replacement barrel that has been factory-fitted and is unique to a particular serial numbered gun. This means when both barrels are worn out, the gun requires depot-level maintenance and the fitting of two new replacement barrels. This is costly and requires the availability of replacement guns during the maintenance down time. These are just a few of the factors to consider when switching to calibers with inherently less barrel life.

Sporting Rifles

The above life expectancy issues hold true in sporting firearms as well, but most sporting firearms are never fired that often, so the accuracy degradation is far less noticeable. Most sporting rifles on average are fired less than 20 rounds a year. Moreover, most sporting firearms users don’t require precision. If they can reliably drop a deer at 100 yards using an off-the-shelf (non-precision) sporting firearm and readily available off-the-shelf sporting ammunition, they’re happy with the marksmanship bragging rights associated.

In view of the cost of precision firearms—or even sporting firearms—barrel life expectancy must be a critical consideration along with understanding how short-lived that really is. Keeping an accurate logbook count of every round one fires for each gun he relies upon for accuracy will provide the user a means to anticipate declining accuracy and barrel longevity. So—before contact-ing Shilen, Bartlein or Krieger and spending $600 to $800 to re-barrel a gun, do the bar-rel life-expectancy analysis to make sure the right thing is fixed.

How to Extend Barrel Life

There are things one can do to extend bar-rel life. Reducing heat by slowing the shooting pace will reduce overall barrel wear and wear across the gun’s operating system. Reducing the burn heat of the powder used in the cartridge is a second life extender and reducer of throat erosion. If you’re reloading, that’s a relatively easy fix. Use a cooler burning powder. If you’re buying match ammunition, be careful what you choose to shoot and never ever practice with other than the same match ammunition you use in competition. Remember, every round you fire subtracts time off your barrel life.

Another bore life extender is to change barrel cleaning methods. Stop using a bore brush to clean the gun. While it may not seem so, brushing drags abrasive material through the bore, which causes wear as well as damage to the lands and grooves by rounding their shoulders. Use powder and lead/cop-per solvents that reduce or eliminate the need for aggressive brushing and patch-clean the firearms. Eliminate the use of abrasive cleaners and methods altogether. Also, always use a properly fitting bore guide. It is not uncommon to see barrels that have been damaged or prematurely worn out from improper cleaning techniques. The military is famous for this and has done little to recognize or to rectify the problem.

There are other negative-accuracy sins that can be unknowingly committed. When breaking in a new gun don’t, repeat don’t, use the old “shoot one or two rounds, then clean and repeat multiple times” procedure until the shot grouping settles in. That adds needless wear on the bore that actually accomplishes little for break-in. It’s far better to shoot competitive group numbers and clean the bore using the same repetition one would use in competition. The new gun will settle into acceptable shot groupings far faster with less bore wear and overall, you will accomplish the break-in using less bore seconds (remember, every round fired subtracts from the barrel life expectancy).

Finally, the ammunition used is critical to the gun’s performance. Shooting match ammunition through a field (non-precision) gun may improve your grouping slightly, but it surely does not justify the additional cost of match ammunition. On the flip side, shooting other than match-grade ammunition through a precision firearm can be permanently destructive to the gun, and it won’t take many rounds to do the damage. The object is to narrow the variables to the greatest extent possible with the goal of achieving the tightest groups.

When practicing shooting skills, most shooters aim at the bullseye, striving for tight groups, and leave the range believing they are adequately skilled to defend themselves. Sadly, few properly practice the skills necessary to stop an opponent and win in a gunfight. There is a difference between target practice and self-defense shooting.

Target practice is all about hitting the bullseye under range conditions in a non-stress environment. The opposite is true in real-world, self-defense scenarios where grouping and score don’t matter much. Self-defense shooting focuses on hitting a dinner-plate-sized center of mass on the first shot from the ready position in a life and death gunfight, under all environmental and lighting conditions. What does this really mean and how does one practice the necessary gun skills on the range to win in a real-world gunfight? The answer is twofold.

The first phase of the solution requires building total familiarity with the gun(s) you intend to use for defense. The objective of this first phase is to develop “muscle memory.” We’ll define muscle memory as becoming so familiar with a particular firearm, or firearms, that you no longer have to think about how to operationally use them. You should be completely familiar with its “feel” and operating it; e.g., wearing/carrying, drawing, acquiring the target, pointing it on target, firing it and reloading it when necessary.

This can be accomplished at home—no range time is necessary. For example, if you’re using a handgun for carry, you should begin by repetitively practicing (for hours), wearing the holstered gun, drawing from your carry holster, pointing it on target, dry-firing at dinner plate-sized (12-inch center of mass) targets, along with regular magazine changes or revolver speed loading drills. It should go without saying, but obviously you’ll want to use snap caps in your weapons for your dry fire drills.

A technique employed by many gunfighters is to use 12-inch paper plates as practice targets. Why? A 12-inch plate, if held against one’s chest, covers the human body’s vital organ center of mass. It is anywhere within this specific area where the first and second shot (in a double tap) should be placed. Paper plates can be easily taped chest-high to a wall or other furniture around the house or stapled to tree branches outdoors for dry firing practice. These are the practice targets you should use to develop muscle memory.

Particular attention should be given to maneuvering and shooting (dry fire) around the house at these center of mass plate targets, rehearsing your movement on a predetermined path to counter the threat to yourself and/or others. A number of liberal states, for example, have “retreat laws” that require a home defender to retreat within his home until he can retreat no further before engaging an intruder. Right or wrong, this means you cannot open fire, unless fired upon, by the armed intruder who has just broken down your door, without first retreating to a place within your home where you can retreat no further. Only then can you legally engage your assailant (and win in the ensuing court battle you will surely face).

So—in the above scenario, preplanning various routes to the retreat location where you will make your stand and rehearsing that route with the weapon(s) you will be using at the ready is vitally important. Tape the center of mass plates on the walls at your critical defense points along the way, point on those targets as you move and dry fire. Conduct this practice drill often and do it under various lighting scenarios to become familiar with your flashlight and/or night sights. Practice your movement exactly as you intend to move when defending yourself.

There is another distinction that needs definition and understanding—the difference between concealment and cover. “Concealment” simply means you’re concealed or hiding behind something so your opponent can’t readily see you. That could be something like a sofa, a door or even a thin inside room wall. All of these examples provide concealment but not cover.

“Cover” can also provide concealment, but cover also protects you from bullets. Cover will save your life in a gunfight, concealment won’t if your opponent happens to see you. Therefore, as you plan your egress route to the point where you intend to make your stand(s), seek out location(s) that will protect you from penetrating fire. A single drywall (drywall/2×4 stud construction common in newer homes) will not provide cover unless you can stand behind several wall thicknesses.

These techniques should also be rehearsed outdoors in and around cars in a parking lot scenario, as well as your driveway parking, or garage-parking scenario. In these cases you’re using the vehicle’s engine block and transmission for cover, engaging your opponent from the front, back or side of your automobile as necessary. You’ll be shooting through windows and windshields, around and beneath the vehicles with the goal of exposing as little of yourself as you can to your opponent(s)—using the vehicle for concealment and cover. Again, this can be done by taping paper plates, representing your opponents’ vital area center of mass, as targets at various locations around your parking area. Practice, drawing, pointing on them and dry firing. Practice identifying and retreating to a cover position where you can engage your opponent(s).

Always be aware of what’s downrange beyond your targets. This is important in practicing your field of fire. Liability resulting from lethal collateral damage from gunfire that misses its target, or completely penetrates it and keeps on going, falls squarely upon you as the shooter. Wherever possible, plan and practice your dry fire drills with the downrange impact area in mind.

Some of these techniques can be practiced at an indoor range and employ live fire, but instead of using traditional bullseye targets, use paper plates. Hang them chest high. If the range safety rules permit, practice drawing and shooting a double tap (two fast consecutive shots) at your paper plates, aiming for the center of mass. Punching holes anywhere within the plate’s 12-inch diameter is completely acceptable accuracy for gun fighting.

Many ranges will not allow a shooter to practice by drawing a holstered firearm. Rather, they strictly require that once loaded, the firearm be placed on the shooting bench in front of the shooter and not be picked up until ready to shoot at the target. Restrictions like this greatly reduce the effectiveness of practicing your self-defense shooting skills and provide little more than firearm familiarity (“feel”). Even so, you can practice by gripping and holding the gun at the ready, pointing the gun downrange, raising it on target and firing at a center of mass (paper plate) target. Double tap if permitted. Return to the ready position and repeat these steps. As you can see, this is very different from target shooting.

This brings us to the second phase; developing and practicing your “full mission profile” or FMP for short. The FMP was more or less already suggested in the preceding discussion. Regardless, your gun fighting practice should be based on FMPs. You should therefore develop a different day/night FMP for every conceivable scenario you might encounter; e.g., walking to/from your car, into/from your home, or apartment, awakened by an intruder while in your bedroom, while watching TV, seated at the dinner table or while at work (if you carry there) or sitting in your car at a red light, etc. The FMP should factor your immediate defensive reply and then rapid movement to a covered defensive stand location. All of these require FMP muscle memory practice. The objective is to be able to move and shoot as necessary without having to question direction or firearm operation.

This level of familiarity will give you a clear edge in a gunfight. You will already know what you intend to do. You’ve rehearsed it dozens of times in and around the locations you frequent. You know what you will do next, and you’re mentally prepared to do it. This will greatly reduce your confusion when you’re in a life threatening, overwhelmingly stressful scenario. It will allow you time to make rational decisions and engage your target effectively vice wildly, or worst case, not at all because you’ve frozen. Most importantly, it will greatly reduce your margin of error and increase your chances of survival.

To a lesser extent, the second phase also involves the weapon(s) you intend to use. Your choice of carry and home defense weapons is critically important because they are most often not the same weapon. All too many times people make the wrong choices—choices that complicate their ability to defend themselves in a gunfight scenario. Bigger is not necessarily better. If you have a small hand and a small body, choosing a 12-gauge auto-loading shotgun with rifled slugs for home defense or a 1911 .45 pistol for personal carry are probably not good choices. Better choices might be a 20-gauge pump action shotgun with 00 buck shot and a Smith and Wesson .357 model 340 revolver—both simple to operate and maintain, and they are very lethal.

Your choice of firearms should be based on commonsense and purposeful analysis of your operating environment and your shooting acumen. If you live in a vinyl-sided condo or a row home built with drywall/frame construction, you must take into account the wall penetration capability of the firearm you intend to use for home defense. Almost all handgun and rifle rounds (to include shotgun rifled slugs) will easily pass through drywall and frame constructed walls and continue on through your next-door neighbor’s walls.

The objective is to stop a lethal threat against you and/or your family without killing your neighbor in the process. Shooting shotgun shotshells instead of rifled slugs and hollow points or frangible bullets instead of jacketed ammunition in your rifles and handguns is a considerate and responsible choice for self-defense, as these projectiles will likely not keep going after they strike an object, yet they provide ample stopping power.

Another important element is the size and weight of the firearm you choose. Always go with a weapon that feels “right” to you. Ergonomics are key to accurate shooting so if the weapon feels awkward or otherwise doesn’t feel right, don’t use it for home defense. Whatever firearm(s) you choose for self-defense should feel like an extension of your body and should be mechanically uncomplicated enough so that you can confidently operate it in a life threatening scenario during the heat of the day or in the dark, cold and wet.

Many such weapons have accessory rails (Picatinny Rails) that are customarily loaded with expensive lights, tritium night sights, spotting lasers, night vision and thermal devices. This stuff looks cool, but it is largely useless in a home defense scenario. Plain and simple, it is no substitute for honed muscle memory. The best advice is to keep everything as simple as you can. Don’t complicate a simple gun by adding complicated “cool” stuff to its rails.

The same is not true for the firearms you might take target shooting or hunting (or carry in a combat or law enforcement scenario). Target shooting, as stated previously, is a very different game than self-defense shooting, and the two do not have interchangeable practice scenarios. Target shooting is largely an “administrative” activity where score counts. You strive to shoot small groups or break a perfect round of clays. You know what your target is and where it is in advance (or where it’s coming from and going to) and when you’re going to shoot it. Mental preparation is as necessary as the choice of firearms.

Target shooting is largely done indoors or under ideal outdoor environmental conditions on a formal range with distinct field of fire restrictions. Where outdoor environmental conditions are less than optimal, the shooter wears protection against the elements. The stress one may feel when target shooting results from competition, not from trying to survive a life and death gunfight—again, the two are very different.

Finally, it is true in all things that practice makes perfect. Target shooting and self-defense shooting are different. The difference in the two is in the firearms used and how the practice is conducted and accomplished. Aimed tight groups under ideal range conditions won’t win gunfights. Precipitously placing a round or two into your opponent’s center of mass does. How well you prepare yourself for a gunfight is up to you.

One of the great mistakes made by many shooters is to judge a firearm’s performance based upon the manufacturer’s claims, rather than by its operational results. In the world of precision shooting, accuracy isn’t a matter of belief; it’s a matter of evidence. While one’s shooting ability is important, equally important is the precision quality rifle or handgun one shoots, the ammunition one uses and how one maintains it all as a precision package.

The interoperability combination of gun, ammunition and maintenance is essential to reliably score precision hits. In short, you must always practice exactly like you intend to shoot when it counts most. Many shooters don’t realize there are some simple steps they can take with regard to gun bore and operating system cleaning, ammunition handling and gun storage that will significantly increase hit probability and tighten groups.

The growing variety of precision firearms, marketed as such, available on today’s market is overwhelming, especially to the eyes of new shooters. Attributes like a floating barrel, precision action, precision bore, precision adjustable stock, etc., are alluring. Manufacturers abound with claims of precision accuracy at extreme ranges. The word “precision” is one of the more overused labels and claims made by the gun and ammunition industry as a whole. But what is precision? What does it really mean when it comes to firearms and ammunition? Moreover, how do you maintain a precision firearm, or any other (not-so-precision) firearm for that matter, in a precision condition?

A precision firearm, by definition, is one that has been meticulously manufactured with “special attention to material and manufacturing detail;” nothing more, nothing less. It’s all about the quest for attaining maximum performance of any particular firearm. Many precision firearms are manufactured with, or “fitted” to, demanding tolerances in the gun manufacturer’s custom shop. Others are built one at a time as custom hand-fitted guns made for a specific purpose or operational role. Most all of these guns are similarly built using competition screws, springs and sights. Most have fully adjustable stocks or grips and, of course, Picatinny Rails abound. Often these guns are further “tricked out” with hand engraving that further drives up the cost without functionally adding anything except superficial beauty—but a gun doesn’t have to look “cool” to be a precision firearm.

It is important to note at this point that “precision” doesn’t mean “reliable.” Many assume that precision and reliability are the same thing; they are not. If anything, precision frequently drives down reliability in field conditions because of the close tolerances used in manufacturing. This may sound counterintuitive, but it is not. A certain amount of tolerance “slop” must be designed and manufactured into the weapon so it will not need to be maintained under hermetically clean conditions to be reliable. Precision guns are often “temperamental,” especially when exposed to environmental extremes. Feed malfunctions, stovepipes and the requirement for constant pampering are not uncommon.

Lessons

Lesson 1: Extremely tight precision tolerances often result in weapon operating system and feed and extraction malfunctions. The best way to determine whether or not the precision weapon you’re looking to buy is reliable is to read customer reviews. Customer reviews provide unfiltered “ground truth” where manufacturers’ claims, store clerks, good ol’ boys and gun writers’ evaluations usually don’t. Think about it … when was the last time you read a negative review in a gun magazine?

Another important point to remember is that in all cases no two identical firearms will perform identically using the same ammunition under the same operational conditions. How can that be you might ask? It’s again all about differences in part manufacturing and fitting tolerances, no matter how slight they might be. All manufacturers’ drawings provide an acceptable window of plus/minus tolerances for the machining and fitting of parts. It is literally impossible to create two identical firearms for that reason. You can make them close but not perfectly the same, and ammunition, round-to-round, shares the same issue. Therefore, when nearly identical guns are fired using nearly identical ammunition there are still differences that affect performance and accuracy.

Most firearms evaluated in gun magazine articles are done by a single shooter (the article’s author) using a single, sample weapon. The guy on the range next door might be shooting an identical gun and using the same ammunition and get very different positive or negative results. So you’ll want to make your firearm selection based on as many shooter reviews as you can read based on the same firearm. While these reviews are mostly subjective observations, they are pretty much ground truth as the average shooter reports his experience. From this dialog you’ll get an informal ground-truth feel for the firearm’s performance under a wide range of conditions, shooting a variety of ammunition.

Lesson 2: Equally important to precision shooting is the ammunition that is being fired. Using cheap ammunition in a precision firearm is self-defeating. Shooting regular, non-match grade ammunition in a precision firearm instead of match grade ammunition is akin to putting cheap gas in a racecar. Shooting non-match grade, cheap ammunition in a precision firearm won’t damage it, but why would anyone want to shoot junk in their precision firearm?

Ammunition selection is critical to accuracy especially at long ranges. Match ammunition is manufactured by lot and usually sold that way. Most match ammunition manufacturers, for example, weigh every bullet and segregate the bullets to be loaded into weight categories. They weigh and trim every cartridge case to length and shave the case neck for concentricity and thickness uniformity. When they assemble the rounds, powder is carefully measured for each cartridge load. When the bullet is installed into the cartridge, every round is measured for the bullet’s installed height and overall cartridge length. This attention to loading detail provides superb uniformity that translates to accuracy. Regular production ammunition has no such quality control, and that’s why it should not be used for precision shooting.

Lesson 3: Ammunition handling and storage are also important to accuracy. Generally speaking, precision ammunition doesn’t use as tight a cartridge neck crimp to hold the bullet as is used in regular production ammunition. A slight lessening of the cartridge neck crimp is an accuracy enhancer. Regular production ammunition is crimped hard so it will endure rough handling and the forces of auto-feed from a magazine or linked belt, but that hard neck crimp can result in accuracy fluctuations.

Protect match ammunition in a shell box designed for that purpose when you’re transporting it to and from the range. Store your match ammunition in a cool, low-humidity environment as you would a fine bottle of wine. Don’t shove it in your shooting bag and subsequently throw the bag in the bed of your truck to bounce around under the hot sun for days at a time. If your match ammunition shows any signs of corrosion, dirt contamination or damage of any kind, don’t use it in a precision firearm. Another taboo is applying lubricant or preservative coating of any kind on your ammunition. Lubricants will penetrate the primer pocket and absorb into the primer itself. This causes misfires. Lubricants on the cartridge case will attract dirt that will be carried into the magazine and chamber with every bolt stroke. Lubricants coating the cartridge case will burn and cause carbon build-up in the gun chamber leading to sludge and lending to feed and extraction malfunction. Keep your match ammunition clean and pristine.

Lesson 4: Before shooting, give both your firearm and the ammunition you intend to shoot several hours to equalize with the ambient temperature of the environment you will be shooting in. This is not to advocate that if it’s raining or snowing that you should expose your gun and ammunition to the elements. In fact, quite to the contrary, keep your gun and ammo as dry and protected as possible. What you can do, for example, is put your gun and ammunition in the trunk of your car or a weatherproof container for a few hours at ambient temperature prior to shooting. Temperature and humidity affect a multitude of variables ranging from barrel harmonics, to propellant combustion spontaneity, to bore fouling, to bullet ballistic performance–all are critical accuracy contributors.

Lesson 5: How you clean and subsequently foul your bore is fundamental to precision shooting. Remarkably, the precision shooting community has largely moved away from using traditional bore solvent and brushing the bore to loosen carbon and metal deposits. Today’s chemistry has provided us with some excellent solvents that are applied using wet patches, allowed to soak for 10-20 minutes; then a second solution is wet patched through the bore and allowed to interact with the first for another 5 to 10 minutes. These solutions not only loosen and dissolve carbon, they remove copper and lead. The bore is finally dry-patched until the patches are clean, and the bore is squeaky clean. If necessary, the entire process can be repeated.

The finish patch many precision shooters use is dampened in denatured alcohol for a final run through the bore. No lubricant is patched through the bore or sprayed into it. The bolt is closed, and the gun is stored with a dry bore. Some shooters will additionally cut a small stamp-size piece of painter’s adhesive tape (the blue colored stuff) and put it over the muzzle end of the barrel to keep dust and dirt from inadvertently fouling the bore. The gun is stored with the bolt closed, sealing the barrel’s breech end.

Lesson 6: Some shooters, especially police snipers, will make their first shot on a clean bore. They practice for this scenario and have reasonable confidence in their first shot, cold bore accuracy. However, most competition shooters will foul their bore before shooting a competition round. Fouling usually consists of 3 or 4 shots prior to shooting the competition string. The purpose of fouling is to add carbon and metallic material back into the bore’s lands and groves as well as heat the barrel slightly, thereby providing a more consistent friction coefficient for more predictable projectile ballistic performance. Those first 3 to 4 fouling rounds fired seem to adequately serve this purpose.

Lesson 7: Lubrication of the gun’s friction surfaces is very important. There are a number of lubricants available that have wild performance claims. However, there are a few that do actually make a difference and are formulated to permeate the granular structure of the metal and “plate” the friction surfaces, radically reducing, if not eliminating, wear. The key is to find one that doesn’t wash out, melt away or mutate into emulsified gunk when exposed to the wide range of shooting environments military, law enforcement, competition shooters and hunters regularly encounter.

Cleaning Solvent Attributes–What to Look For

• Chemically loosens and removes burnt powder, lead and copper fouling
• Contains no ammonia or other chemicals potentially damaging to weapon surfaces to include polymers, bluing, plating, etc.
• Non-corrosive to firearms parts, non-toxic to humans, environmentally safe
• Non-mutagenic
• Non-flammable, minimum flash point of 150°F
• Lubrication attributes:
• Reduces wear on all friction and pressure surfaces (moving metal parts)
• Prevents corrosion, rust and oxidation
• Resists water washout, adheres to metal surfaces keeping lubrication functional under all environmental conditions
• Insoluble in water, won’t collect and hold dirt
• Non-hazardous, non-toxic, environmentally safe

A limited number of manufacturers market quality cleaning and lubrication formulas in a package consisting of handy applicators that can be easily carried in a web gear pouch or cargo pocket. These, with the addition of a vinyl-coated rod with jag and patches or a snake and patches, will suffice for almost all field-cleaning requirements. In a shop cleaning environment, a vinyl-coated rod and jag should be used for bore cleaning. In all cases, always push or pull the patch through the bore from the breech end to the muzzle end (following the bullet path). Don’t brush the bore; use the jag and wet patch method previously described.

Remember to leave the solvent soak for a number of hours (time permitting). Then, wet patch the bore again and again (the patches will initially be copper green and black colored) until the patch comes clean. Now, dry patch the bore until clean. Follow up with a damp patch of denatured alcohol. Close the action (bolt) and put a stamp-size masking tape tab over the muzzle end to close the barrel. If you intend to store your weapon, or you’re operating in a high humidity environment, you may want to run a damp patch of a high-grade plating lubricant through the bore before sealing the bore.

The described cleaning process works great on all firearms so give it a try and be fastidious.