In 1909, further trials were announced. Fedorov would re-submit his 1906 model which was received with great acclaim from the military, for it was the only rifle that passed all endurance and shooting trials. This design would receive further development up to 1913, when Fedorov would also introduce a non-rimmed cartridge to pair with his rifle, 6x57mm. This 1913 rifle went as far as being ordered for field trials, 150 to be exact. However, due to the declaration of war in the following year, all developmental work was ordered to immediately cease.

A year passes, and the threat of a central power’s invasion dwindles and interest in automatic weapons picks up again, both in aviation and in the trenches. Fedorov is sent to France as an observer and there he examines the Chauchat automatic rifle and its deployment as a light machine gun. His findings inspire the Russian authorities to create an experimental battalion, the 189th Izmail division, to be armed with automatic weaponry, including C96 pistols, and most importantly, Fedorov M1913 rifles, some having been adapted to use Madsen magazines. This is one of the major myths permeating the Fedorov lineage, as the later 1919 rifle is often associated as being the version fielded during the Great War.

However, there was an actual model of 1916 Fedorov rifle which resembled, in part, the later 1919, being carbine length, using the 6.5mm Arisaka ammunition, and being fully automatic; These were designated for the air force, which received them with great enthusiasm, to the point where 25,000 automatic rifles, or “Avtomats” as they were now being called (to differentiate them from the infantry version) were considered to be necessary for the war. Obviously, for a country like Russia that lacked the manufacturing capacity to produce even bolt action rifles for their regular infantry, producing this number of complex automatic rifles was unfeasible. Even with this caveat, production of the Fedorov was deemed to be of great importance, leading to major factories like Putilov and Izhevsk to be built to produce parts for the Fedorov, which they allegedly did. By the end of 1917, the Kovrov Arsenal was also instructed to start production of the Avtomat. Although, this wouldn’t last long, for the Russian Revolution would temporarily halt any development or production of this new automatic rifle.

The Kovrov Arsenal, when originally built, was partially funded by the D.R.S. (Dansk Rekylriffel Syndikat) company to produce the Madsen light machine gun to the Russian forces, who were one of the first countries to field it in the Russo-Japanese war. When the Russian Civil War broke out, the Kovrov region fell into Soviet control and they confiscated all production of firearms from there, including the very few Fedorovs that had been produced to that point. These few guns captured did impress the recently created Soviet Army which contacted Fedorov to work as the main director of the plant. The Soviets also requested a further 15,000 Madsen rifles and 9,000 Fedorov rifles to be manufactured as soon as possible, investing heavily into the plant, with a new design bureau and manufacturing buildings.

For this effort, the Fedorov rifle was simplified to ease production, which resulted in the version that we identify as the Fedorov nowadays, the model of 1919. With a newly designed 25-round magazine, the iconic wooden front grip Even then, the task of manufacturing this order stalled quickly; supplies were hard to come by due to the Russian Civil War and lack of organization and manufacturing sophistication further killed the idea of producing the Fedorov in any significant quantity. Only about 100 guns were produced in the first year; peak production was in October 1923, with 822 guns.

Nevertheless, the Russians couldn’t let the opportunity of having such an innovative concept and (a genius firearms designer at their disposal) pass. Many prototypes and developmental models appeared in the early 1920s in an attempt to broaden the Fedorov system’s potential usage. Shpagin, famous for his WWII era submachinegun, collaborated with Fedorov in such an attempt. They worked to make an armored vehicle adaptation of the system, double-barreled, and with a ball mount. It was installed on early Soviet armor, such as the MS-1 tank and BA-27 armored car. Meanwhile, Degtyarev worked on a light machine gun version of the Fedorov, both a water-cooled and air-cooled, Lewis-style variant was tested with bipods and extended magazines. However, in 1925 the Soviet army canceled all firearm projects that used foreign calibers. As the Fedorov was still using the 6.5mm Arisaka cartridge, it was caught in the crossfire of the ban. Some projects would crop up later, but none would go past prototype stages. The remaining Fedorovs would end up being sent to depots.

An example of Shpagins and Degtyarevs modifications of the Fedorov, one porting a double barrel design, with inverted receivers and the other with a water-cooled jacket and bipod retrofitted.

Although it was such an innovative firearm, the Fedorov would not see much service along its troubled life. Around 120 rifles were used during the first world war, mostly converted semi-automatic M1913 rifles with extended magazines that were fielded by the 189th Izmail detachment in Romania, and a few others which were given to aviators. After that, it saw some use in the early history of the Soviet Union, but its main debut would be in the Winter War between the Soviet Union and Finland, where supply-starved Soviet troops were reissued with older surplus rifles, including Fedorovs. However, due to lack of maintenance of the somewhat complex mechanism and lack of spare parts, they were very quickly abandoned. For this reason, Finland has one of the biggest collections of Fedorov rifles.

To summarize, the history of the Fedorov has become quite murky due to the problems and conflicts that affected most, if not all, of this firearm’s history. From its humble beginnings as a semi-automatic Mosin conversion, to what some consider to be the first assault rifle ever fielded and made.
 

The most successful way to bridge the gap between pistol and carbine is the shoulder-stocked pistol, and Mauser lit the path, presaging the development of the sub-guns genre which saw the development of the legendary M3 Grease Gun, the BSA Sten, the HK MP5, and many others. Although the concept of a personal defense weapon went unnamed at the dawn of the 20^th Century, its value was recognized, and the new Mauser pistol became a worldwide best seller. Like Mauser rifles, it loaded from a stripper clip and the bolt could also be held open by an empty stripper clip, allowing the cartridges to be loaded individually by hand.

The ability to hit targets easily with a reliable weapon was the virtue that sold most people on the new pistol. Despite appearing clumsy in the hand, the pistol is easy to handle. Since most folks aren’t dedicated pistol shooters, having a pistol that makes up for some of their lack of expertise is a blessing. Firing with the C96 one-handed easily produces a ¾-inch group at 25 yards. A lot of revolvers won’t even do that from a Ransom Rest fixture. Due to its forward position of the magazine, those who want to use a two-handed grip should put the second hand around the front of the magazine. This gun is shaped differently than other guns and that becomes an advantage for precision shooting.

The pistol also came with a shoulder stock that doubled as a holster. Most small, light, guns are hard to hit with. Not this one. In addition to being about the smallest and lightest gun practical, the stocked Mauser Military Pistol locks-in solidly for accurate firing. Put your second hand around the front of the magazine well and it becomes rock steady. Hits at ong-range (200 meters and beyond) are easily attained. Exactly why this gun is so easy to shoot (both with and without its holster stock) is a mystery. Everyone has a pat answer, but none of them hold up under intense scrutiny. It just is.

Due to its compact size, you could effectively use the stocked Mauser pistol with one hand while still holding the reins of a galloping horse with the other. Of course, steadiness on a galloping horse is relative, but some cavalrymen of the day used it that way while others used it just as a pistol. The ability to go back and forth between being a pistol and a compact carbine sets the stocked Mauser Military Pistol ahead of the “modern” PDWs that are too big to fill the role of a pistol.

The stocked Mauser Military Pistol was very compact. Fitted with a holster harness, it was often worn on the belt and, sometimes, a sling was used. The rig also fits nicely in a briefcase. Without the stock, you have a very thin pistol that lends itself to concealment. In one instance between WWI and WWII, when it was common for Europeans to carry pistols, a group of men sharing a train compartment decided to compare pistols to help pass the time. The first three produced various .25 automatics but the fourth pulled out a full-size Mauser Military Pistol. There was a surprised silence as they beheld this comparative behemoth then one of the men said, “you’re in the military, aren’t you?” The fourth man smiled and nodded as he holstered his Mauser pistol.

Easy handling and concealability weren’t the new automatic pistol’s only virtues. In all its long history, no one has ever been able to fault its reliability under the worst combat conditions. When you drew this pistol, you could be sure that it would work. Screws are often a source of trouble in pistols as they loosen and back out. The only screw in this pistol is the one holding the grips on. Power was another virtue. The pistol was originally chambered for the flat-shooting .30 Mauser cartridge which launched an 86-grain bullet at 1410 FPS, easily penetrating 11 standard 7/8-inch boards and equaling the penetration of a .357 magnum armor piercing round. Penetration on the battlefield (where the enemy is constantly trying to hide behind cover) is paramount. Due to the light bullet weight, there was very little recoil, and this came to the forefront between the wars when the select-fire Mauser Military Pistol Model 711 came out. Despite a very high cyclic rate, the pistol was controllable in full-auto, so long as the holster stock was attached. If a close-range emergency dictated full-auto fire without the stock, you would turn the pistol on its right side and let it arc to the right without climbing. In WWII, German dispatch riders often carried this pistol, as did some members of the Nazi SS.

While less common than the original .30 Mauser chambering, the pistol was also made in the powerful 9mm Mauser. It fired a 128-grain bullet at 1362 FPS. In China, they made a copy in .45 ACP.

For those wanting the most compact survival rifle practical, the stocked Mauser Military Pistol has no competitors. Certainly not the current Air Force “survival” rifles”. These skeletonized abominations are glorified zip guns and the hardest things to shoot accurately that I have ever encountered. Not to mention, they also lack the power to deal with large game or to stop a determined attack by man or beast.

THE STORY OF TWO PISTOLS

There are two different Mauser Military Pistols shown in the photos. The near mint example was brought back as a war trophy by an officer in the 24^th Infantry Division in the Philippine Campaign of WWII which saw some of the hardest and most intense fighting of the war. He was issued a M1911A1 pistol and an M1 carbine, but used the pistol for most of the fighting, and using the carbine only for long range shots. He had grown up using his father’s pistols killing snakes and was quite adept with them. Whether the Japanese who had originally owned this Mauser Pistol had gotten it as a private purchase pistol, which was common, or had taken it as a war trophy in China is unknown.

The second pistol in the photos is a stocked Mauser Military Pistol that was loaned to me by Hunter’s Lodge in Ethridge, Tennessee. They have a number of them in inventory. This one is a well-worn WWI 9mm version but without the red “9” on the grips that these models are known for. It functioned flawlessly and despite the well-worn barrel, it still shot accurately. The holster stock was a bit longer than normal, which suited me as I take a 15 9/16-inch length of pull if a stock is being made to fit me. One of the photos shows the now rare stock sling for this gun.

TIPS FOR USERS

The Mauser Military Pistol has a heavy metal bolt stop to prevent the slide from coming out of the gun. It’s a good idea to check this part for cracks and replace it if need be.

If you want to be sure that the locking lugs are working properly, there is a simple test for that. Knowing that the barrel must recoil slightly to initiate the unlocking process, hold the pistol by the barrel and try to pull the bolt back. If the locking lugs won’t let it move, the test is passed.

This pistol is very fast and easy to take apart and put back together, but one thing that none of the manuals tell you is that these guns usually need a sharp tap from a block of wood to snap together in the last assembly step. Just make sure that the lug on the right side is aligned with the notch on the frame.

The number of pristine condition Mauser Military Pistols is small, and their collector value is high. Do not despair, though, if all you can get is a worn out, beat up one. Eugene Golubstov at Lugerman.com is one of the few total restoration gunsmiths in the world. He can take any junk Mauser pistol and refurbish it, inside and out, so that it’s indistinguishable from one that has just left the Mauser Factory 100 years ago. He can also do major and minor repairs and re-barreling on these guns.

CONCLUSION

It is a testimony to the genius that went into this pistol that, today, 128 years since it first came out, there is still no other weapon that precisely fills the niche of the Mauser Military Pistol.

Before it ceased operations on a fateful February day in 2017, Olympic Arms, Inc.—headquartered in Olympia, WA—was known as a prime manufacturer of AR-15 variants for the civilian and law enforcement markets. Established in 1982 as the brand under which Robert C. Schuetz of SGW (Schuetzen Gun Works) manufactured and sold AR-15 derivatives, Olympic Arms established itself as an innovator. It was the first to offer free-floating aluminum handguards or pistol caliber conversions for America’s rifle; they were also the first company to experiment successfully with a redesigned upper receiver that would integrate a recoil buffer over the bolt carrier group and barrel, allowing an AR-15 to be equipped with a side-folding stock — or none at all.

Olympic Arms was also one of the first-ever manufacturers of AR-15 pistols: indeed, the aforementioned top recoil buffer allowed its OA-93, OA-96, and OA-98 pistols to do without a buffer tube behind the lower receiver. While that system did provide the basis for a good, super-compact, short-barrel rifle (the OA-93 TCP, with a side-folding stock and a 6.5-inch barrel), Olympic Arms would indeed go on to develop an SBR based on a standard AR-15 layout.

ENTER THE “STUBBY”

The reason why Olympic Arms decided to follow that road when they had a bufferless design (arguably better, albeit with room for improvement) already in production; given the short barrel length, which would make it subject to the provisions of the National Firearms Act, the 1994 assault weapons ban that was in effect back in the day was likely not a factor in the decision.

It’s more likely that the company decided to market a product that would be more appealing to military, law enforcement, and government customers by providing prompt drop-in compatibility with pre-existing, select-fire M16 or semi-automatic AR-15 lower receivers for entry/CQB operations or for close protection details. And indeed, Olympic Arms was offering 6.5-inch BBL drop-in uppers to MIL/LE customers as early as 1998.

The first factory complete SBRs based on those uppers would be launched circa 1999, dubbed the K23B “Stubby”. Built around an Olympic Arms MFR lower receiver with standard controls and chambered in 5.56×45mm NATO, the Stubby was by no means the first “micro M16” to hit the global markets – products such as the La France Specialties M16K and the M2 Corp. M16C, M16X, and M16SP had been around for a while, and that’s not mentioning Colt’s early Model 607 carbines dating as far back as 1965 – but it was definitely one of the shortest-barreled to be produced in quantities that could be considered “significant” by any standard, and was very shortly followed by other very similar competitors such as the DPMS “Kitty Kat.” For all intents and purposes, the K23B Stubby did pave the way.

SHORT AND BRUTAL

The Stubby featured an A2 upper receiver with a 6.5-inch cold-hammer forged barrel, a Smith Enterprises Vortex flash hider, an A2-style front sight equipped with a front sling swivel but no bayonet lug, and a free-float cylindrical aluminum handguard that was a short version of the version used by Olympic Arms on their line of match-grade AR-15 variants. As such, the K23B does not feature a delta ring, nor a handguard cap.

It’s worth noting that Olympic Arms was the first company to introduce a free-float handguard for the AR-15. A new flat-top version would be launched around 2004. It would come with an M4A1-type removable carry handle mounted on a top Picatinny rail and a quad-rail machined aluminum handguard, making it more compatible with the many accessories that were becoming increasingly popular back in the day… and that today we just can’t seem to do without. This last version was in production — or at least available — all the way until Olympic Arms ceased operations.

The carry handle on the Stubby was fixed and featured a familiar, A2 fully adjustable rear sight. The bolt and bolt carrier group were, likewise, standard for an A2 variant, and as such the Stubby came with a standard recoil buffer, buffer tube, and six-position collapsing stock. Manufactured out of black polymer, the stock of the Stubby was more akin in design to that of the M16A1 carbine, M733, or early the Colt Commando (XM177), but all the standard A2 features were otherwise there (including a brass deflector in front of the forward assist and some major fencing around the magazine catch.)

Of course, such a small carbine (barely 20 inches long with the stock collapsed) would suffer severe overgassing problems and timing issues without a properly tuned gas system. Olympic Arms went solved this problem with a pigtail gas tube: essentially a carbine-length gas tube shortened to PDW length by wrapping it in at least two loops around the barrel. The length that the gas has to travel to reach the gas key and push the bolt back is the same as on an 11.5-inch or 14.5-inch carbine, ideally reducing pressures to levels that guarantee sufficient reliability.

From direct experience, and experience of other users, that’s actually easier said than done. Firing a 5.56mm firearm with a 6.5-inch barrel is truly brutal in terms of concussion and muzzle blast, even outdoors, becoming particularly uncomfortable for the shooter after just a few rounds in rapid fire. Shooting it in low-light conditions or indoors will quickly become taxing to the shooter’s eyes and ears. Owners of the rare K23Bs in Italy, where this article was written, were quick to nickname it the “portable flashbang dispenser.”

Additionally, such a short barrel does not do a proper job at stabilizing ball ammo for engaging targets farther than thirty feet or so away – but that’s par for the course, the K23B was always meant for extreme CQB. Simply put, the Stubby barrel is just too short, not allowing enough time for the propellant to burn properly and for gases to reach optimal pressure levels. Trying to hit anything at 50 meters, or approximately 55 yards, is essentially a coin toss.

Finally, the pigtail gas tube is an excellent solution that reduces recoil in semi-automatic rifles and the cyclic rate of fully-automatic rifles when the barrel is at least 11.5 inches long… but on a 6.5-inch barrel, the levels of torque can easily become too high for the gas tube to bear. As such, the most commonly reported issue with the K23B is the rupture of the retaining pin, causing the gas tube to come out of the gas block and make the gun completely useless until it could be repaired.

A system such as the TwinTube, patented by Tim LaFrance for his M16K, would have been a better solution. But then again, back when the K23B came out, Olympic Arms was focusing on bufferless AR designs, and their first SBR had been such a design, with the K23B being more of an afterthought for compatibility with pre-existing M16 lowers. Something’s always gotta give.

AN OBJECT OF DESIRE

It’s quite clear that the Stubby was never a key product for Olympic Arms, but more like a footnote in their MIL/LE catalog; a version for the U.S. civilian market, dubbed the K23P and featuring a pistol-length recoil buffer and buffer tube, came to be without much success at a time when arm braces were still a long time from appearing. However, there is at least one place where the K23B has risen to an almost cult status among shooters and firearms enthusiasts: Italy. And that’s where we found the sample pictured in this article, at the Armeria Red Point gun store in Ostia, just outside of Rome.

The Stubby was approved for import and distribution on the Italian civilian market in March 2001, and it is considered a handgun by Italian law, which does not distinguish pistols from rifles by the presence of components like a buttstock or the intended shooting stance, but rather by the overall length vs. barrel length ratio (“intended to be fired from the shoulder” isn’t a thing, here.)

The Italian gun laws have been significantly improved from the year 2011 onwards, with some hiccups following the 2015 wave of terror attacks in Europe. However, back in 2001, the law (passed in 1975) assigned oversight on the Italian civilian firearm market to a central commission composed of “experts” (mostly from the military and law enforcement) with regulatory powers similar to that of the ATF in the United States and full freedom of interpretation as of what constituted a “common” firearm and what was a banned “weapon of war”, albeit somewhat tied to the National Proofing House.

The history of such a commission would warrant an article on its own. But, right now it’s sufficient to say that if it was for the mindset of the members of such commission (dissolved in 2011), the Olympic Arms Stubby would have never made it to the Italian market. As the (quite reliable) rumors have it, however, politicians entered the chat, or to be more specific, one politician, very prominent in Italy and extremely controversial, who held the office of Prime Minister four times from 1994 to 2011.

This specific politician, who passed away in 2023, relied on his personal private security detail even when he was Prime Minister and would have had the right to a state security detail; as such, he wanted his private security to have the closest thing available to the Colt Commando, Heckler & Koch MP5 (later MP7), and a G36C that were standard for that kind of close protection duties in Europe.

The Italian importer for Olympic Arms – the now long defunct ATP (Action Tactical Products), headquartered in the northern town of Lesa – imported an unknown “minimum quantity order” of K23Bs, anywhere between ten and twenty samples, almost all of those immediately purchased privately by the personal bodyguards of the aforementioned politician, the others all sold on the civilian market and becoming the first “super-short” AR-15 on sale in the country. Many others would follow.

Back in the day, the Stubby was marketed in Italy chiefly towards private security guards – particularly those employed in cash-in-transit duties – but the extremly high price made it largely unattainable on a security guard paycheck, and all samples ended up in the ownership of private collectors with extremely deep pockets. Even nowadays, on the Italian second-hand gun market, the Stubby does not command any less than 3,800 euros, or just over $4,000 U.S. dollars.

Guaranteed, they’ll all be in essentially mint, as-new condition, but with the high number of better alternatives currently available to Italian shooters, including locally made models, you would need to see the K23B Stubby as a grail gun to spend so much money on one.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

Just about every military small arms enthusiast is familiar with the U.S. M3 and M3A1 submachine guns, better known by the nickname bestowed upon them by GIs during World War II, the “grease gun.”

The .45 caliber M3 was conceived as a less expensive alternative to the Thompson submachine gun, which at the time the U.S. entered World War II in 1941, the Thompson design was 20 years old. The M3 was patterned after the British Sten and German MP40 sub-machine guns, both constructed from sheet metal stampings—a far cry from the Thompson forged and machined receiver and parts. In addition to being less expensive, weapons stamped from sheet metal can be produced faster, an essential advantage in wartime.

Mk II

The Mk II was the most prolific model of the British Sten. The receiver was fabricated from pre-formed metal tubing. The German MP40 receiver was made from a flat piece of sheet metal that was rolled into a tube. The receiver of the U.S. M3 submachine gun was far more complicated to produce. The M3 receiver and most of its other parts were stamped from cold rolled sheet metal, requiring a factory equipped with a battery of large hydraulic stamping presses. The receiver was made of two separate stamped pieces that were then welded together. When production began, it was discovered that it was difficult to accurately weld the two receiver halves together. In addition, the heat from the gas welding process was warping the thin metal, and it took some time to perfect the process. During production, the time allotted for welding the two receiver halves together was 12.11 minutes. The M3 design had an advantage over other submachine guns of the day, with its ingenious guide rod-bolt system. The bolt of the M3 rode on two guide rods, never touching the inside of the receiver. The unique system made the M3 impervious from malfunctions caused by mud, sand or other debris, making it one of the few weapons to successfully pass all the Ordnance Department’s requirements.

The Guide Lamp Division of General Motors Corporation

The Guide Lamp production plant was located in Anderson, Indiana, and in 1943 it had over half a million square feet of production floor space in 18 separate buildings. The Guide Lamp Division of the General Motors Corporation was a peacetime manufacturer of automobile lamps, headlight buckets, hub-caps and bumper guards. Guide Lamp had a lot of expertise and experience in sheet metal stampings and was an excellent choice for the manufacturing of the M3. By May 1943, the first M3 submachine guns were finally rolling off the assembly lines at Guide. Production had fallen far behind projected figures by the unforeseen welding problems encountered with the receiver. However, by June 1944, 1,000 M3s were being manufactured every 24 hours.

The Guide Lamp contract price for the M3 was $17.92 per unit less the bolt assembly. The initial price was later amended to $18.36 per unit to cover the cost of minor production changes and the packing and shipping of the completed units. The M3 bolt assembly manufacture was subcontracted to the Buffalo Arms Company at a cost of $2.58 per piece.

The following quote is from the second summary of the tests at Aberdeen Proving Ground upon adoption of the M3 Submachine Gun. “Although it would be dangerous to state that further improvements and developments are unlikely, the ultimate has been reached in this type of weapon for the time being and production may begin without fear of immediate change.”

The above statement was premature, because as the M3 was pressed into service, problems began to arise. The M3 was not yet “GI Proof.”
One of the primary problems was with the cocking handle and its internal parts. A second problem was magazines were dropping out of the weapon, by the accidental pressing of the exposed magazine catch. Deterioration of the bolt face and barrel chamber was found to be caused by soldiers using the overly long wire butt stock as a cleaning rod. These problems and a few others would be addressed in an upgrade of the weapon.

M3E1 Submachine Guns

The M3 was thought to be as simple and reliable as possible; however; the Ordnance Department felt that the weapon could be simplified even further. Six pilot models were built, incorporating several recommended changes that were designated as the M3E1 submachine gun. Two of the completed weapons were sent to the Infantry Board at Fort Benning, Georgia, for informal testing, and two were demonstrated at Aberdeen Proving Ground. Since none of the changes incorporated in the M3E1 design had any adverse effect upon the reliability of the weapons’ functioning, no formal testing was undertaken by the Ordnance Department. Sufficient firing of the new weapons was conducted to satisfy concerned personnel as to the desirability of the changes incorporated. Some of the firing demonstrations were witnessed by representatives of the Army Ground Forces and by the director of the Infantry Board who expressed his approval of the M3E1.

The U.S. M3A1 Submachine Gun

The experimental M3E1 was recommended for adoption on November 2, 1944, by OCM 25593. On December 21, 1944, the M3E1 Sub-machine Gun was approved and officially adopted as: Submachine Gun, Caliber .45 M3A1, thus reclassifying the M3 as Limited Standard.

M3A1 Changes

• Ejection port increased in size
• Cocking handle assembly eliminated, fin-ger hole added to bolt for cocking
• Disassembly groove the length of the bolt
• Stronger cover spring
• Larger oil can located inside the grip
• Stop plate and magazine loader added to the stock
• Guard for the magazine catch

9mm M3 and M3A1 Submachine Guns

Among the original specifications desired in the T-20 (M3) submachine gun was a kit to change the caliber to 9mm. The conversion kits were originally planned for allied use in the European Theater; none were ever issued to U.S. troops. The 9mm cartridge was common in Europe during World War II. It was the standard pistol and submachine gun cartridge of both the British and the Germans. Ammunition would be easier to obtain by resistance groups that the U.S. Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was planning to supply with the M3. The conversion kits could also make the M3 readily adaptable for use by the British especially when using a Sten magazine. The conversion kits consisted of a Bolt assembly C153425, Barrel Assembly C153435 and magazine Adapter C153430. In December 1943, the Ordnance Committee recommended that 500 of the 9mm conversion kits for the M3 be obtained as a limited procurement item. In February 1944, procurement was authorized. The parts were manufactured by the Rock Island Arsenal and Saginaw Steering Gear. The 32-round Sten magazines would be obtained from the British government.

In addition to M3 and M3A1 conversion kits, there were a small number of grease guns produced that were marked 9mm, in place of .45 caliber, on their magazine housings. Those observed were the same configuration as the .45 caliber model but fitted with Sten magazine adapters, 9mm bolts and barrels.

Curved Barrels

Due to its compact size, the M3 submachine gun was ideal for issue as a defensive weapon for armored vehicle crews. The weapons could be easily stored in the cramped space inside a tank. Tanks in the field were usually accompanied by infantry troops for protection from the enemy. Without infantry protection, the enemy could climb onto the tanks and drop grenades or spray machine gun fire into the inside of the hull, killing the trapped crews. To avert such situations, the Ordnance Department engineers came up with several curved barrel designs for the M3. The idea was the crew could extend the curved barrel out of the tank and spray enemy soldiers on their vehicle with fire, without exposing themselves. The issue of the curved barrels was limited. The Germans had also experimented with curved barrels for a number of their small arms.

The .30 Caliber T29 Submachine Gun

The German Sturmgewehr mid-range assault rifle was an entirely new concept in World War II. The weapon had the full-au-tomatic capability of the submachine gun but fired a more potent cartridge, giving the enemy far more range. After U.S. troops began to encounter the Sturmgewehr in the field, requests were made for a similar weapon. The most expedient method to get such a weapon to the troops was to modify an existing model. The M3A1 was chosen as the best candidate. The concept was given considerable study by the design section of the Guide Lamp Division of the General Motors Corporation, which was manufacturing the M3A1 submachine gun. There were three M3A1 submachine guns made, designated as the T29, chambered for the .30 caliber carbine round. The weapon was basically an M3A1 with a larger magazine well to accept carbine magazines, a modified bolt, a spring-loaded case ejector and a 14-inch long barrel. Initial testing revealed more development would be required. Development efforts of the T29 ceased with the adoption of the select-fire caliber .30 M2 carbine.

The Suppressed M3

The U.S. Ordnance department developed a special interest in suppressed or silenced weapons after learning of the British Special Operations Executive (also known as the SOE) commandos’ successful use of their silenced Sten Mark II S model. The weapon proved to be an invaluable asset for special operations where surprise and concealment were paramount to a successful mission. The SOE was the British counterpart of the United States’ OSS organization.

It was held that the U.S. M3 submachine gun would be ideally suited for adaptation of a suppressor because of its inherently subsonic .45 ACP cartridge.

The M3 suppressor research was conducted at the Infantry Center at Fort Benning, Georgia. There was an interest in supplying Army Rang-ers and other troops with a silenced weapon for special assignments. The earliest silencers were based on the Hiram Maxim baffle system. These proved to be heavy and cumbersome. None of the Fort Benning designs went past the prototype stage, and the project was canceled.

The Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was established in June 1942. The OSS organization was engaged in various types of covert and unconventional activities during World War II. The OSS had requested from the Army Ord-nance Department suppressed submachine guns for their special mission and operational needs. By late 1943, the OSS was directly supporting resistance groups in Europe and the South Pacific. The U.S. Ordnance Department contracted Bell Laboratories to develop a new suppressor for the M3 submachine gun. Guide Lamp was subcontracted to manufacture drilled barrels and special barrel nuts for the project. The High Standard Company was engaged to produce the components and assemble the unit. The contract called for 1,000 suppressor units to be built. The barrels made by Guide were identical to the standard production barrels except the face of the barrel nut was machined to form a seat for the expansion chamber. The barrel was also a standard item modified by drilling 48 one-quarter-inch diameter holes, arranged in a straight-line pattern of 12 on each quarter section of the length of the barrel. The muzzle end of the barrel was threaded for a length of one-half of an inch to enable the front end of the suppressor can to screw onto it.

The suppressor itself consisted of two sleeves. The rear sleeve is the expansion chamber. It is 7.5 inches long and 1.5 inches in diameter. The front sleeve is the silencer housing and is 7 inches long and 1.125 inches in diameter. The expansion chamber is connected to the silencer housing by a metal connector. External threads on the front portion of the unit were screwed into the connector. The connector was screwed on the muzzle of the barrel and holds the rear part of the suppressor in place by seating on the modified barrel nut. The rear expansion chamber contained a coil of stainless steel mesh. The front section of the suppressor housings contained approximately 230 steel mesh discs. An end cap secured the discs in place. As the bullet travels down the barrel some of the propellant gases escape through the 48 holes drilled into the sides of the barrel.

The total of submachine guns manufactured from 1943 to 1945 by Guide Lamp was 606,694 M3 models and 82,281 M3A1 models, for a combined total of 688,975 weapons. The entire World War II production of the M3 and the M3A1 would total only a little more than one-third of the Thompsons produced during the war.

During the Korean War, the Ithaca Gun Company was contracted through the Roch-ester, New York Ordnance District to fabricate 70,000 new M3A1 submachine guns. The manufacturing was authorized under contract number DA 19-058-ORD-7894. Preparation for the manufacturing would be assisted by the data package documented by Guide Lamp during its manufacture of the weapon.
Delays in getting production started resulted in the Ithaca M3A1s being manufactured in 1955–1956 after the war in Korea had ended. The contract was canceled after 33,227 guns were manufactured; primarily due to the Korean conflict ending and the anticipated adoption of the M14 rifle.

The Colonel Hamilton M3 Submachine Gun

Sometime in the post-World War II era, an experimental weapon was constructed by a Lt Colonel Hamilton while he was stationed in Panama. An obvious attempt was to modernize a M3 submachine gun. The front part of an M3 was welded to a steel frame with a removable side plate, secured with machine screws to remove the bolt assembly. Other upgrades include: a wooden buttstock, fore-grip and pistol grip, side cocking handle, adjustable flip-up rear sight and a perforated barrel jacket. The overall length is 30 inches, barrel length is 8-inches, and the weight is 11 pounds. The weapon was procured by the Rock Island Arsenal Museum in 1948 and is currently on display there.

Rare M3A1 Magazines

During World War II, M3 magazines were made by Sparks-Withington (SPW) and Kesler Brass (KL). The magazines made by those companies are still common even today. During subsequent conflicts, in Korea and Vietnam, there were small production runs of magazines for the M3 and M3A1 submachine guns.

In addition to M3A1 submachine guns, Ithaca also made a small number of magazines for the M3A1, marked with a new drawing number C565427 and “ITG.”

Magazines were also produced during the Vietnam conflict by Jahn Manufacturing. These were marked with a letter “J” and drawing number C-565427. OKAY Industries purchased Jahn Manufacturing around 1970.

The Adoption of the U.S. M14 Rifle

Substitute Standard after the adoption of the M14 rifle, which (in theory) was replacing the M1 rifle, the carbine and the submachine gun. M3A1 submachine guns continued to be issued to Army Reserve armored units as late as 1999. Modern mid-range assault rifles like the M16 and M4 have rendered the military use of the submachine gun obsolete.

Most gun enthusiasts will know that the Swiss-made B&T MP9 rotary barrel sub-machine gun was developed by Steyr-Mannlicher and manufactured in Austria from 1992 to 2001 as the Steyr TMP; but that’s just scratching the surface. Things between Steyr and the rotary barrel go way back – to the early 20^th Century, to be more precise.

A LOT OF FIRSTS

At the turn of the 20^th Century, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was a centuries-old, declining global power, but a major power nonetheless; a status that it would formally retain until its defeat in World War I and its subsequent dissolution.

As such, it retained a massive military that strived to remain equipped with the latest, cutting-edge technology. In 1898, the Austro-Hungarian army had adopted a new sidearm in the form of the Mod.1898 Rast & Gasser revolver. It was chambered for a proprietary 8mm Gasser rimmed cartridge. Despite fairly modern (for the time) features such as an eight-round cylinder and a double-action trigger, the Rast & Gasser retained other characteristics, including an Abadie gate-loading system and an ejector rod, that made it obsolete right from the very get go.

And this, at a time when designers worldwide were already experimenting with increasingly reliable semi-automatic pistols that were seeing limited military adoption by the militaries of smaller countries and, in certain cases, by specialized troops and the navies of major powers, the Mauser C.96 was ordered by the Turkish Army, the Italian Navy, and saw success in China, while the Luger pistol first entered service in Switzerland, then with the Imperial Navy in Germany, a foreshadowing of the full-scale adoption that was to come.

Little did those countries know, the Habsburg empire would outrun them all, and with a domestic design nonetheless, the brainchild of Karel Krnka.

Born in Bohemia (which was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and would now be in the Czech Republic), Karel Krnka followed in the footsteps of his father Sylvester, who had designed the breech-loading conversion for the 1857 Six-Line musket used by the Russian Empire. Early in his career, he designed a few ill-fated breech-loading, straight-pull, and bolt-action rifles. In the late 19^th Century, after a stint in England, he started working on handguns under the patronage of Georg Roth, owner of one of the biggest ammunition manufacturing companies in the empire.

Some years earlier, another handgun designer by the name of Wasa Theodorovic had worked under the patronage of Roth, coming up with a series of pistol prototypes, aptly dubbed the Roth-Theodorovic, that the company had not been able to successfully pitch. Karel Krnka extensively reworked the original Theodorovic design into various prototypes, adding or removing features as the development phase went by. Among other things, Krnka did without an external hammer and any manual safety of sorts, briefly experimenting with a grip safety before settling on a peculiar striker-fired trigger system that looks very familiar today.

The final iteration of the pistol, now known as the Roth-Krnka, was submitted to the Austro-Hungarian military in 1906 and officially adopted in 1907, hence the official denomination “Repetierpistole M.7” for “Model 1907 repeating pistol”. The Austro-Hungarian government acquired all rights and appointed the two major firearm manufacturers of the Empire to produce it broad numbers for the entire military, with cavalry units being designed as early adopters due to the specific features that made the Repetierpistole M.7 ideal for cavalry units.

The biggest manufacturer was, of course, OWG (a.k.a. Steyr), which further refined the project from an industrial point of view, adapting it to broad-scale manufacturing. It produced approximately 60,000 samples, which is why the pistol is today known as “Roth-Steyr”. However, the FEMARU Fegyvergyár Részvénytársaság of Budapest (later known as FÉG) was also in the game, manufacturing about 30,000 samples from 1907 until the end of World War I.

Just like that, Austria-Hungary had beaten all major powers in adopting a semi-automatic pistol as the standard service sidearm for its armed forces.

FAMILIAR FEATURES

The Repetierpistole M.7 is a hefty piece of machined steel, with a very long, sliding bolt assembly entirely enclosed in the frame. Locking is achieved by two cams machined on the barrel itself, which engage two slots within the front of the bolt assembly that wraps around the barrel.

As the pistol is fired, the barrel moves with the bolt for approximately 13 mm (½-inch) until a set of two front cams integral to its cylindrical body engage with a corresponding set of helical guides machined into the barrel bushing, blocking its rearward movement. This disengages the barrel from the bolt body and forces it to rotate 90-degrees clockwise while the bolt assembly completes its rearward movement, ejecting a spent case and picking a new round from the magazine and feeding it to the chamber as it is pushed back to the locked position by the return spring.

The Repetierpistole M.7 is a striker-fired pistol, with a trigger that can be described as half-way between a single and double action. When the plunger (which hosts the striker) at the rear of the pistol’s body is pulled back and released, the rear portion of the striker’s body protrudes from the end cap to signal the cocking status; but the striker is actually only half-cocked. As pressure is applied to the trigger, the sear pushes the striker all the way back to a fully armed position until it disengages it, allowing the striker to spring down and hit the chambered round.

Should the round fail to fire, the striker must be manually cocked by pulling again on the plunger; a built-in safety intercept system prevents the striker from reaching the primer and igniting the round if the gun is fired when out of battery. When all ammunition is spent, the bolt assembly locks back to the open position; once the Repetierpistole M.7 is reloaded, it’s brought back to the locked position by pushing on a slide stop tab located above the grip.

What we are looking at, here, is essentially not only the first semi-automatic pistol to be adopted by a major military, and not only the world’s first rotary barrel pistol, but also the first “Safe Action” pistol. Glock’s signature trigger goes back a long way, but its roots are traced back to Austria. The trigger system was one of the reasons why the Roth-Steyr design was considered to be particularly adequate to the needs of cavalry units; the gun simply can’t fire by accident and features a hold-open device for one-handed operation.

The grip of the Repetierpistole M.7 is one with the frame, features wood panels, and double as the pistol’s magazine, which is loaded from the top via the ejection port using stripper clips. The M.7 held ten rounds of a proprietary .32 caliber (dubbed 8mm Steyr or, more accurately, 8×19mm Roth-Steyr). Slightly more powerful than 32 ACP, it was originally made available to the Austro-Hungarian military by its own ordnance factories in a 113-grain load with greased, unplated steel-jacketed bullets, although some private suppliers, including Georg Roth’s own factory, did manufacture cupro-nickel jacketed loads.

Regardless, all ammunition for the M.7 came pre-loaded in a stripper clip with a plunger to assist loading and prevent mishaps that could cause rounds to be ejected uncontrollably under the pressure of the follower springs. The stripper clips were packaged individually, and the M.7 featured a tab located above the grip that could be pushed when the bolt was locked in the open position to unload the magazine by, you guessed it, just ejecting the rounds from the top window.

FORGED IN FIRE

The service history of the Repetierpistole M.7 is inextricably tied to the downfall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, as the pistol had its baptism of fire on the cruel battlefields of World War I. Outside of a small batch of German-produced Sauer variants of the design sold on the civilian market starting in 1900, in fact, the Roth-Steyr Model 1907 failed all military bids outside of Austria-Hungary, including two separate pitches to the militaries of the U.K. and the U.S., where it was unsuccessfully offered in a .45 caliber variant.

As the fortunes of war turned against the Central Empires, the number of M.7s in service quickly turned out to be insufficient. Starting in 1912, the Austro-Hungarian military had been complementing it with the Repetierpistole M.12, a.k.a. the Model 1912 Steyr Hahn, a hammer-fired, stripper-clip fed pistol that was easier to manufacture and more powerful than the Roth-Steyr, being chambered in 9×23mm Steyr and 9mm Luger.

Nevertheless, the Habsburg Empire’s need for handguns during the war ended up vastly outpacing the local industry capabilities; like their counterparts in the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian troops had to resort to the “Behelfpistole” (“Necessity pistols”), often privately equipping themselves with commercial handguns chambered in a myriad of different calibers. As the defeated Empire collapsed and disintegrated after World War I, a myriad of new independent states were born where it once stood. These states, including the Austrian republic, Hungary, and Yugoslavia, ended up inheriting vast quantities of Repetierpistole M.7s and all fielded them before and (in small numbers) during World War II.

Austria’s arch-enemy Italy ended up capturing swathes of Roth-Steyr pistols during World War I and received many more as reparations; those guns were retained in service as rear-echelon sidearms for decades, so much so that Italy’s biggest ammunition manufacturer, Fiocchi, produced vast quantities of jacketed 8mm Roth-Steyr ammunition. The 1920s and 1930s saw those guns issued to Askari units with the Italian colonial troops in Africa, and in the final chaotic months of World War II, the Italian fascist troops that remained loyal to Mussolini and to the Germans fielded them in the last desperate attempts to stop the Allied offensive across the country.

That was the swan song of the Roth-Steyr Repetierpistole Model of 1907. Today, a small (but not small enough to make them rare) number of these survive on the civilian collector market in Europe and the United States. Their conditions may vary, but those that are still in good condition can return decent results at the range. Among other companies, Fiocchi still manufactures an 8mm Roth-Steyr load with Boxer primers and 113-grain FMJ bullets, developing approximately 329 fps of muzzle velocity and 290-foot pounds of muzzle energy, considered safe for these old timers.

However, if well kept, the Roth-Steyr Repetierpistole M.7 can reasonably be tested with original ammunition. I remember such a case from early on in my career when I worked for the historical (and now defunct) Italian gun magazine “Diana Armi” in the early 2000s. My colleagues and firearm collectors Roberto Allara and Oscar Groppo fortuitously came into possession of ten 8mm Roth-Steyr rounds (marked “GR” (for Georg Roth!) and manufactured in 1910) that were recovered by a friend in the woods of northern Italy, the location of many bloody gunfights between fascist troops and partisans in the final months of World War II.

Once each round was inspected for lack of corrosion and painstakingly restored, and, fighting back the protests of antique ammunition collectors who wanted to prevent such a waste, the two colleagues brought a third party on board who happened to own a Roth-Steyr M-1907 pistol. Two attempts to use the original stripper clip failed, but third time is always a charm… and there they went, on a 15-meter range, putting nine rounds out of ten on target, progressively getting closer to the bullseye. That’s what you get from a 100-year-old pistol and 100-year-old ammunition… if you’re brave enough.

The things we do for science…

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

Once the creator of one of the first mass-produced light machine guns, Denmark had slept through the dawn of the submachine gun era.

While Denmark’s neighbours busily experimented with the new type of weapon in the 1930s, at first nothing happened in the country of the machine gun. The Dansk Rekyl Riffel Syndikat (DRS), which was founded in Copenhagen before World War I, continued with machine gun production. The Model 1903 and its successors sold well, and the brand name “Madsen” had already established itself into far countries. The officer, inventor and Minister of War Vilhelm Her-man Oluf Madsen had been the driving force behind the development, and in his honor the weapons bore his name.

When the Wehrmacht invaded Denmark in April 1940, there were only a few foreign submachine guns in use by the Danish Army. Negotiations with the Finnish arms factory, Oy Tikkakoski Ab, on a licensed production of the Konepistooli M31 (Suomi) were in progress but could not be finished before the German occupation. At the end of 1940, the company, now renamed Dansk Industri Syndikat A/S (DISA), began production of the Finnish submachine gun with a slightly modified stock and protected front sight as the M/41 under German control. The approximately 1,400 weapons produced were first used in Danish units and taken over by the Germans after the disarmament in October 1943. At DISA, each weapon model and each variant received its own P (project) number, even if only some mark-ings were different. For example, the P.5 was the version for Portugal, to which the weapon was offered in 1943.

Otherwise, not much happened in the course of the war. The development of their own submachine gun was going on slow. By the time P.13 was finally finished as the “Model 1945,” the war was over, and the design was already obsolete. An interesting feature: the bolt was attached to a slide which extended over the barrel and also covered the recoil spring. For cocking, the slide was pulled back until the bolt was locked by the sear—just like a conventional blowback pistol. This slide moves back and forth with each shot. This circumstance, and the elaborate milled parts, a solid wooden stock and a complicated interior were no longer up-to-date. The installation of a folding stock did not help either. Only Mexico and El Salvador bought a few pieces.

At the same time, however, a further development had been worked on, and it was to become a major commercial success for DISA: an uncomplicated, modern submachine gun with a sheet metal receiver, folding stock and a simple but effective safety.

The work on project P.16 would be completed by the end of 1946. The production-ready weapon was called “Model 1946” (M-46) and was sold under the brand name “Madsen.” The first weapons were sold to the Danish police. Thanks to a cost-effective production, inquiries soon came from South America and Asia. El Salvador, Paraguay and Thailand were among the first foreign customers.

The weapon is an unusual design, consisting of two receiver halves, each of them pressed from one piece of sheet metal including the grip piece and magazine well. They are held together at the back by the hinges of the side-folding wire stock and at the front by the barrel nut. The cocking handle is a bracket-shaped slider that rides along on top of the receiver. Disassembly of the M-46 is very easy: one must unscrew the barrel nut, pull out the barrel, remove the cocking slider and then open the left side of the receiver, almost like a book. All internal parts such as bolt, recoil spring and buffer will remain in the right receiver half and can be easily removed. No tools are needed, and there are no connecting pins that can get lost. Weapon cleaning has never been easier, as there are no inaccessible places.

On the other hand, the operating principle is not very innovative. The Model 1946 is a conventional blowback design firing from the open bolt. The cocking slider can be operated from both sides due to its position on top of the receiver. It moves forth and back with every round fired. The weapon is fed by a stick magazine with 32 rounds (9x19mm). The small magazine loader is practically stored inside the hollow grip together with a spare extractor and a second firing pin.

The safety mechanism is extraordinary: the bolt can be locked in the open or closed position by means of a manual safety switch located on the left side of the receiver right above the trigger. And then there is an additional automatic safety in form of a lever just behind the magazine well. To fire the weapon, one must grasp the magazine and this lever securely with the non-firing hand to release the bolt. Otherwise, the lever protrudes into the receiver and blocks the way of the bolt. This kind of safety is highly unusual in submachine guns. Only a few weapons, such as the Italian TZ-45 from World War II, have almost identical safeties. Most commonly the designers rely on a grip-safety located in the grip piece. The lever behind the magazine well has one big disadvantage: the weapon cannot be fired with one hand. In case of injury or if only one hand is free, the shooter has an unsolvable problem.

In the following years, DISA did a slight revision of its submachine gun, resulting in the P.56. The main improvement was the new cocking handle. It got the shape of a button, was firmly attached to the bolt, and there was no need to remove it before disassembling the weapon.

On November 7, 1950, the submachine gun was presented as “Model 1950” on the shooting range at the old Mosede Fort near Copenhagen. Military representatives from Great Britain, India, the United States and several other countries were allowed to attend the successful demonstration of firing 20,000 rounds with a weapon from the current serial production. After 2 hours and 17 minutes the test was over—and the gun still alright. Not a single malfunction occurred during firing. In the days before the demonstration a barrel was already stressed with 42,970 rounds and then measured. The muzzle velocity decreased by less than 10 percent and the bore widened by 0.04mm (0.0015 inch). The military, in any case, seemed to have been convinced by the Mad-sen M-50, because it soon became an export hit. Orders followed (again) from El Salvador, Guatemala, Venezuela, Colombia, Indonesia and many other countries.

To be even more successful in the international market, there were a few minor improvements to the weapon, as well as a few variants to choose from. From the Model 1953 (P.74), the thread for the barrel nut was relocated from the receiver to the barrel. A curved magazine was supposed to improve the cartridge feed (although the straight stick magazines were working properly). In addition, an alternative barrel nut could be used in connection with a perforated bar-rel jacket with integrated bayonet lug. The last DISA submachine gun was the Madsen Model 1953 Mark II (P.127). It too was optionally available with barrel jacket and bayonet. On request, wooden grip plates could be attached so that the grip piece did not heat up in the sun as much as the standard grip piece made of pure metal.

In Brazil, the Indústria Nacional de Armas S/A manufactured the submachine gun under license in São Paulo. Contact with the Danes was made in 1949, and DISA assem-bled some prototypes in the desired .45 ACP caliber. Already in the middle of 1950, serial production began in the factory in Brazil. The weapon was given the model designation INA M950. The most noticeable difference to the Danish model was the cocking handle relocated to the right side of the receiver. Three years later, a slightly improved version followed—the INA M953. Among other things, the magazine well was extended. The submachine guns were used in large numbers by army, navy, civilian police and other armed units. When the military forces switched to 9mm ammunition in the early 1970s, the INAs were gradually sent back to the depots for storage. The number of weapons is not known, but it was enough to let the military think about a conversion to 9mm caliber. Originally, the state-owned armaments company Indústria de Material Bélico do Brasil (IMBEL) was to produce a conversion kit consisting of barrel, bolt and magazine so that the replacement work could be carried out directly in the respective depots. But the conditions of the weapons varied a lot, and many had to be repaired first. Ultimately, therefore, the weapons were sent to the IMBEL factory in Itajubá for rework and conversion. In addition, the submachine guns received a fire selector switch because most of them went to the police, and they wanted a semiautomatic function.

As great as the success of the Madsen sub-machine guns was in the world, it remained modest in its homeland of Denmark. Only the Danish police bought weapons from DISA. The army, however, preferred the M/49 “Hovea,” which was adopted in 1949. It was nothing more than a copy of the Swedish Carl Gustaf m/45. The state-owned weapons factory (Haerens Vabenarsenalet) in Copenhagen was chosen for its production.

Such items have existed as long as there have been firearms, and, in truth, scale weapons have existed much longer. “There were skilled craftsmen making miniature weapons including cross bows, siege engines and, of course, even suits of armor,” said Wayne Driskill of Wayne Driskill Miniature Firearms (waynedriskillminiatures.com), one of the premier dealers of scale weapons. “I like to say that as soon as someone used the jawbone of an ass as a weapon someone else stepped up and used a jawbone from a baby ass for his son.” 

Driskill added that many of the scale models of larger items such as the siege engines and similar weapons were engineering models, but since the late Middle Ages and Renaissance, these served another purpose—namely, “salesman samples.” In some cases, this was a way for journeymen artisans to show off their skills; it was easier for a tradesman to carry scale replicas of actual weapons. 

In more recent times these have simply been a way for individuals to show off their skills. In this regard it is akin to model builders, but instead of putting together a kit, those who make scale weapons build everything from scratch. One irony is that while today’s modern world has allowed for all sorts of advancements in 3D printing, laser cutting and computer-aided design (CAD), the art of making scale firearms is a dying one. Perhaps that is because it is, in fact, an art form as few are learning the trade. 

“We’re the last of a dying breed,” admitted Zavie Kucer, who grew up making scale replicas of firearms. It was a skill he learned from his father David Kucer, who is now legendary amongst collectors worldwide and who has been working on the scale replicas for nearly 60 years (kucers.com). 

David Kucer grew up as a self-described “immigrant kid” in Montreal, and during a trip to visit his grandparents in New York City he took in the world of miniatures. The elder Kucer became intrigued with miniatures, while his interest in firearms came from his time in the military. 

“His job in the Canadian Army was to repair firearms,” said Zavie. “When he got out of the military he started to tinker with making miniature guns. His father had a metal shop, which offered the right tools to make these replicas. So he trained as a gunsmith and worked on everything from small arms to 25 pounders, and combined with his skills with tool and dies it just came together.” 

Fully Functional 

What sets the world of miniature firearms apart from so many other scale replicas is that these pieces are fully functional. In the Victorian Era, craftsmen produced the scale versions not only as the aforementioned samples to sell actual firearms but as a collectible to those with means. These included pinfire guns that were novelty guns that could fire blanks or even live miniature ammunition. 

One of the leading makers of these has been Bob Urso of Washington (boburso.com) who said he likes to think that he fills a middle ground for collectors. “I fill that niche between the inexpensive and the very expensive miniatures,” added Bob Urso. “With my guns I capture the look of the gun, and that includes duplicating the grips where I can. However, the action is greatly simplified compared to what others like Zavie Kucer does. I like to say they make a ‘true miniature’ while mine are simplified, but you can shoot the 2mm round.” 

While some of these are detailed and intricate, there is a word that shouldn’t be used to describe them, however: cute. “Cute is for puppies, and these pinfire guns are absolutely still dangerous,” explained Wayne Driskill, who has, since 2009, been the president of the Miniature Arms Collectors & Makers Society, a group that was founded in 1973. “Some will shoot, and some can kill you just the same as a full-sized gun.” 

However, most of the miniatures were not made as weapons, and that is true of the scale firearms made by the Kucers. “Our guns could shoot in theory, but in practice not really,” explained Zavie. “We don’t even make the ammunition, so these do go ‘click, click’ when you pull the trigger, but they don’t go ‘boom.’ But it is still a weapon and could be dangerous if used incorrectly.” 

This includes the scale machine guns, some of which have been built to function. This includes a miniature of the British STEN MkII, which was reportedly made by Leon Crottet of Switzerland, and is capable of full-auto fire. Due to the fact that they use custom-made miniature cartridges, these miniatures are reportedly not subject to the National Firearms Act (NFA) regulations of their full-size counterparts, but it wouldn’t be out of the question that these could raise the attention of law enforcement if used irresponsibly! 

True Americana 

While scale replicas of firearms have been made for centuries, there are plenty of vintage wheel lock and flintlock miniatures in collections. For the Kucers the sweet spot has been in the American small arms of the 19th century. The focus for the father/son duo has been those guns made from 1840 to 1890 and included cap and ball pistols and Winchester repeating rifles. That said, the Kucers have worked on 20th-century firearms as well, with the Colt 1911 being another favorite. “Among the favorite guns I’ve made include a Smith & Wesson Victory Model, which is one the Canadian soldiers used,” said David Kucer. “I also worked on a Smith & Wesson lever action pistol known as the Volcanic. That was an interesting project.” 

The Kucers also explained that they’ve relied on a time-tested method for making miniatures—one that has gone back to the days of these being salesman samples. That involves having a real one, copying each part in scale and producing an exact copy in miniature. This is why, despite the fact that they don’t produce ammunition, the firearms are otherwise fully functional in every other respect. “My dad’s approach was always to have an original, take it apart and copy each piece,” said Zavie. “More importantly this also involved using the same materials and the same method of manufacture. To replicate the guns in such detail requires this level of examination of the firearm. Drawings and even diagrams aren’t good enough.” 

As a result there is a lot of hand finishing involved that couldn’t be accurately represented in a drawing. “We always have to have the original,” added Zavie. “This allows us to make an exact copy of everything including the screws, the springs but also the bluing and the tempering.” When the Kucers produced a Colt 1849 revolver, it featured brass and silver plating, along with a stage coach scene engraved on the gun just like the original.

However, there have been a few guns that haven’t been made due to the complexities of the original. “There was one I really wanted to do,” said David Kucer. “It was a Colt Lightning Rifle, but it was too complicated and too big for our equipment.”

The scale of the weapons varies, but popular today with collectors are those that are in the one-third and one-fourth scale. Obviously the larger the scale, the more detail collectors can appreciate, but part of the appeal is in how small one can go. “It becomes increasingly difficult to make a functional firearm when you go smaller,” said Wayne Driskill. “When you get the cylinder working on these really small guns, it is like working on a watch. You’re talking tens of a thousand of an inch in precision. But it can be impressive to see something like the Colt Navy Revolvers in 1/12 scale, which is smaller than G.I. Joe but is still functional. That is doll house size!”

Modern Copies

The Kucers are part of a dying breed, made worse by the fact that the only production-made miniatures were produced by the now-defunct MiniArt in Russia and by Aldo Uberti, Srl—the latter being the Italian maker of full-sized historic firearms (ubertireplicas.com). 

The mass-produced guns by Uberti can be a good entry point for the new collector, at least compared to a similar handmade gun from Kucer and others. In comparison, a Kucer-made example could be near to $5,000 while a similar Uberti version might be several hundred dollars to $1,000 on the high end. However, some would argue the craftsmanship is a world apart. Then there is the new wave of low-end diecast versions that have come out of China. These are still a step up from toys but lack the overall detail of the handmade miniatures. 

“From my perspective there is no comparison,” said Zavie Kucer. “My father and I make 10 to 12 pieces a year, and our prices mean we’re in a completely different demographic of collectors. What I’ve seen is that new collectors start low and get comfortable in the field and move up. That is true of real firearms, and that is true of miniatures.”

Bob Urso added that he used to produce about 30 a year, but has slowed down in recent years. “I’m 76, and I’m retired,” he added. “This is a labor of love for me. Plus there are some very good makers in the Ukraine and Russia that are producing what I used to.”

This is why the diecast versions will never appeal to the serious collectors, as there are now lower cost, high quality alternatives. While the diecast versions might be worthy of decorating a desk at the office, they aren’t the sort of things that are meant to be on display and likely won’t appreciate over time the way these quality scale miniatures could. In fact, because there are so few being made for collectors it is now like buying real vintage firearms. 

“I’m not really getting any ‘new stuff,’” said Wayne Driskill. “What I’m now dealing in is recycling the stuff that was first sold 25 or more years ago. And just like old art, sometimes it can be a factor of 25 to 50 times more depending on who made it. Certain artists who made these guns back in the day bring more money than the unknowns.”

And that is where, again, it is easy to see the connection to works of art. Not just in the craftsmanship but in terms of how the good “stuff” will only appreciate over time. 

“All is fair in love and war” is an idiom referring to the practice of otherwise questionable actions being considered acceptable under exceptional circumstances. When talking about weaponry in general, one example to illustrate the saying is the direct use of an enemy’s arms of war to forward one’s own agenda. Anti-Communist Afghan Mujahideen fighting their Soviet enemies with Soviet-made weaponry, Islamic State attacking regional adversaries with U.S. M4 and M16 rifles or the post-war U.S. government employing former German and Japanese scientists and technologies for their fight against the red menace are all examples of this common practice. The Israeli Defense Forces‘ hexagram emblem on Nazi Mauser-manufactured Kar98k carbines is another interesting manifestation of this idiom.

On May 14, 1948, the day before the expiration of the British Mandate for Palestine, David Ben-Gurion and several of his comrades at the Jewish Agency were in full preparation to unilaterally declare the establishment of an independent Israel. The Jewish Agency was the representative institution for the local Yishuv, Jews native to the region, which helped coordinate Jewish immigration into Palestine and Jewish armed opposition to the British government and local Arab militias. By May 1948, the Agency realized that the fighting they had witnessed for months on end because of the raging civil war was only a prelude to what was about to come, when they would effectively declare their state proper. 

A year earlier, in 1947, the Jewish United Resistance Movement, a Jewish Agency-organized cooperation of the armed Haganah, Irgun and Lehi militias, came to the conclusion that they had two main problems that needed a decisive solution before any steps could be taken towards the establishment of the state of Israel. First and foremost, they had to come up with a realistic response to the reality of their geographical position, which had them locked and cornered between several enemy Arab states with numerically superior armies. Secondly, they would need appropriate weaponry and ammunition to counter that threat and to secure their soon-to-be independence.

David Ben-Gurion , the future first prime minister of Israel and its first minister of defense , knew that independence could only be achieved through warfare. Since the Arab states still had the upper hand on paper, the Zionists had to outdo them in weapons and ammunition. By mid-1947, he ordered various agents in Europe to begin negotiations with post-war governments willing to sell them arms, despite Britain’s conspicuous anti-Zionist stance.

In a surprising turn of events, the Jewish Agency and the United Resistance Movement had an unexpected stroke of fortune. Communist-controlled Czechoslovakia was open to a deal. Post-WWII Czechoslovakia had a huge surplus of German weapons and ammunition, either locally produced in Czechoslovak factories or surrendered by the German army. Since 1938, Czechoslovakia had been an industrial hub for Nazi Germany’s re-armament project led by Herman Göring, who had been in charge of administering Nazi Germany’s Four-Year Plan, a program of economic development and increased arms production. When the Germans started to annex parts of Czechoslovakia (the Sudetenland) from 1938 onward, Göring decided the country’s pre-existing heavy industry would be ideal for the industrial manufacturing of quality weaponry. The local plants made thousands of rifles for German use throughout WWII, most notably the Kar98k 7.92×57mm bolt-action rifle used by the German military. When the Red Army poured in throughout 1945, however, they seized the factories, and they seized the weapons. The cash-starved Czechoslovak Communists were literally sitting on vast stockpiles of German weapons and needed an opportunity to both sell the arms and empty their inventories. 

However, such a massive arms deal had to be tolerated by the highest authorities in Moscow, since there was no way it could be done secretively without informing their dominant Soviet neighbor. Yet again, the Jewish Agency was in luck. Joseph Stalin  was aware of the need for a loyal USSR ally in the Middle East. Since a vast number of Jews had previously served in the Red Army and since the Soviet Union was home to around 30 percent of all Jews worldwide, the Jewish Agency seemed to be an excellent candidate for a possible political investment. And thus, in 1947, Stalin authorized the selling of large amounts of arms and ammunition to the Jewish militant organizations in Palestine. His only condition was that these would not be of Soviet manufacture or design so the USSR could maintain a certain neutrality on the ground and vis-à-vis the British. A Soviet satellite state would be well placed to undertake the transactions and Communist Czechoslovakia had the obvious preference by both sides of the deal. David Ben-Gurion declared his support for the plan – Operation Balak was conceived.

The first contract with Czechoslovakia to supply rifles, machine guns and ammunition was signed on December 17, 1947, but the mode of transport to Israel was not resolved until well into January 1948. There was a problem after all. Since the British government was officially at war with the different Jewish militias, which it considered terrorist entities, one couldn’t simply walk into Palestine with a boatload of weapons; not to mention the U.N. arms embargo on combatants in the Middle East. The only way to succeed was to smuggle everything into the area by plane or boat. Through code name Operation Balak, a reference to a king of the Moabites whose name is mentioned in Numbers 22:2, Jewish and gentile pilots supportive to the Zionist cause flew tons of weaponry and millions of ammunition rounds from a Czech airfield near Žatec, and later another near Nikšić, to abandoned and make-shift air strips in Palestine. They had assembled a fleet of transport planes, among others the Douglas C-54 Skymaster, bought privately in the United States, to ferry the arms and complete their objective.

The smuggling operation lasted for about three months, the last trip reaching Palestine by sea on April 28, 1948. David Ben-Gurion wrote in his War Diaries dated April 1st 1948: “The tools that were received tonight were already put to work in the war on Jerusalem.” On May 14, 1948, Israel declared its independence as a sovereign state. Just 15 days later, the Arab League – Egypt, Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq, mobilized sizeable armies and attacked Israel as had been anticipated, leading to the beginning of the First Arab-Israeli War. Since the nascent state had more than 35,000 Kar98k bolt-action rifles stocked in its arsenals by then, it distributed the rifles to every able-bodied Jewish man and woman in an emergency measure to secure their borders against multiple enemies. Thousands of immigrants with little or no military training were given rifles and sent directly to the front lines. By the end of May 1948, these conscripts and the United Resistance Movement were reorganized by the government into the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), a conscript army specifically designed to match Israel’s security situation.

After the war, which ended with Israel’s independence secured, Israel purchased an assembly line to locally produce their own version of the Kar98k. Due to delays and the increasing replacement of the rifles (the IDF decided in 1955 to adopt the Belgian FN FAL as its standard-issue infantry rifle), the facility was left to produce spare parts and overhaul all the remaining Kar98k’s. To standardize ammunition, all rifles were reworked and re-barreled to use the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge. They received finger-grooved beechwood stocks, new barrels, a clear “7.62” hammered into the receiver and a “7.62” branded into the butt of the stock. Acceptance/proof marks consisted of the IDF emblem, which is a Star of David enveloping a sword and an olive branch stamped on the receiver and the Hebrew letter tsade in a circle, added on the receiver’s left side. 

By the time the 1956 Suez Crisis broke out, the country still had a lot of the original Mauser 7.92×57mm ammunition and only a portion of the Kar98k’s had been overhauled. The FN FAL was only just starting to enter the IDF’s arsenal. So, the Kar98k went to war again, in both 7.92 and 7.62 calibers. Only by the time of the 1967 Six-Day War, most of Israel’s Kar98k’s had been overhauled and rechambered to the standard 7.62×51 NATO cartridge. When the Kar98k’s where completely eclipsed by Belgian FN FAL’s, local IMI Galil’s and American M16 rifles, the era of former Nazi weaponry came to an end and most Kar98k’s were outsourced to allied Third World countries like Guatemala, exported for arms collectors or put out as surplus.

Sources:

• Luttrell, R., I flew for Israel, Flying Magazine (1949)
• Sachar, H., Israel and Europe: An Appraisal in History (2010)
• Morris, B., 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War (2008)
• Greenberg, J., Fun Stuff in ‘48: British gentile in Israel Air Force, The New York Times (1998) 
• Shanel, L., The Deal, published on the official website of the Israeli Air Force (2011)

Images: wwiiafterwwii.wordpress.com

This article originally appeared at Silah Report, a project of Armament Research Services (ARES) monitoring arms and munitions developments in the Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia. More original material is available at: www.silahreport.com.

At the English Easter Maneuvers of 1891, the 26th Middlesex Cyclist Regiment demonstrated what is believed to be the first use of a machine gun fired by a cycle carriage. Military planners were impressed by the display, but there proved to be a rather significant issue with this concept: two bicycles mounted side-by-side with a platform for the Maxim gun in between. It simply weighed too much. At 96 pounds the bicycles of the era, with solid rubber tires and lacking the gears of today’s carbon fiber mountain bikes, were simply unable to pull the weight of the gun up even a slight incline. Two riders, even on level ground, would struggle to manage more than a few miles an hour. British designers tried to improve upon the design, and one concept included additional bikes that could aid by towing the twin-bike platform.

The Origin of Military Bicycles

Anyone who has visited parts of Europe, notably France, Italy and the Netherlands, can attest that these people love their bicycles. Bicycle racing is one of the most popular sports in Europe, following only football (soccer) in overall popularity. For many Europeans cycling is part of daily life as people commute to work, get to the store and when possible, get away from it all.

It is therefore not surprising that the bi-cycle also has a long and colorful history that includes service in various armies in Europe, and for that matter the world.

However, just as no one person, or persons, can lay claim to actually inventing the automobile, the same holds true for the bicycle. The first person generally credited with building a two-wheel device that would be the forerunner of the modern bicycle was German Baron Karl Von Drais, who in 1817 devised an in-line contraption that was propelled by the rider’s feet. This horse substitute, which was aimed at the well-to-do, didn’t catch on, however.

Other inventors and tinkerers attempted to create a human-driven machine, but it actually wasn’t until the 1860s that Frenchmen Pierre Michaux and Pierre Lallement introduced a pedal-driven system that would propel bicycle technology and subsequently the riders forward. While these early bicycles were actually awkward to ride, military planners saw a potential, and bicycles were employed by French scouts and dispatch riders during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871.

Just as technological advances were being made in the development of automatic weapons in the 1880s so too did the bicycle see significant innovation. English inventor John Kemp Starley built on this development and produced the world’s first successful “safety bicycle,” which was dubbed the “Rover.”

Released in 1885, its design would be recognizable even today. It featured equally sized front and back wheels, with the front being steerable and a chain drive to the rear wheel. Throughout Europe military planners saw a potential for scouts, but also for a new type of mobile infantry.

Across the Atlantic, a handful of American National Guard regiments experimented with bicycles. The First Signal Corps of the Connecticut National Guard formed the first military bicycle unit in 1891, when the bicycle was used by messengers and relay riders. Various challenges ensued including one that had a Connecticut National Guard cyclist prove he alone could deliver a message faster than an entire flag signaler team, while a relay team carried a single dispatch from Chicago to New York City in just four days and 13 hours, with much of it in rainy weather. A follow-up challenge brought a message from Washington, D.C. to Denver in just over six days!

The Bicycle and the Machine Gun Come Together

Military planners proved that the bicycle could be used to deliver messages, but the bicycle also found use for portable topographers and even telegraphers. In one case, a rider used his bike to study the grade of hills and other terrain to help commanders in the field determine if the land was traversable with cannons and wagons.

In the 1890s, multiple nations conducted field tests that included adding a sidecar mounted with early machine guns as well as side-mounted rifles that could be fired from the handlebars. During the Second Anglo-Boer War in South Africa, which began in 1899, the bicycle first had its baptism of fire when it was used by messengers, was adapted into portable stretch-ers and even used as a part of a specially devised two-man cycle to patrol the railroads. In the latter case about 20 were built for patrol work, however, none is believed to survive today.

One of the most notable concepts was produced just after the war ended, when the English company of Vickers & Sons & Maxim created a large, two-man tricycle that featured a platform for a pair of machine guns. More correctly a “tri-cycle” than “bicycle,” it featured three wheels and was designed to carry 1,000 cartridges along with two Vickers machine guns.

This system allowed the two rear-facing guns to set up and fire simultaneously within mere minutes. However, the total weight was more than 375 pounds not including the riders! As with the earlier British design this meant it was almost impossible to pedal up a slope and instead had to be pushed. By removing one of the guns, tripod and ammunition, the tricycle’s weight was reduced to a far more manageable 126 pounds. The tests proved that the bicycle, at least in concept, could be used as a weapon’s platform.

The relative “success” of the bicycle caught the eye of American Albert Pope, who offered his own design which featured a Colt M1895 “potato digger” machine gun affixed to the front of the frame. It was of course impossible to fire while riding, and the weight of the gun seriously impacted the balance.

End of the Line

While designers continued to tinker with the designs, what truly resulted in the end of the line for the bicycle and machine gun were the trenches of the First World War. By that time the bicycle was employed by armies on both sides to help troops to get to the front line, but as the war bogged down into the hellish nightmare of trench warfare the two-wheel machines were relegated to rear echelon duty. Cycles were used to some degree by sharpshooters in less static areas as well as by scouts and, of course, dispatch riders.

A generation after the trench warfare of the First World War, the outbreak of war in Europe and Asia put the cycle back in the field. The German Army, even during its rapidly moving blitzkrieg, still relied on horse-drawn carriages to transport men and equipment, and bicycles also played a part.

Wartime shortages throughout World War II also resulted in many nations utilizing the bicycle to save on fuel. During the invasion of Malaysia, there were thousands of Japanese soldiers rolling towards Singapore on bicycles. As rubber was in short supply, it is reported that Japanese soldiers learned to ride on the rims when the tires went flat and couldn’t be repaired.

Ironically, the nation that is most associated with military bikes is one that stayed neutral throughout both world wars, Switzerland. That nation’s Bicycle Infantry was introduced in 1905 and only phased out in 2001; for nearly 100 years the bikes that the mountain nation used were known for their high quality and equally high durability. While Switzerland experimented with mounting machine guns on bikes over the years, like most other nations it found that the bicycle was best used as a tool for infantry.

In the end it was the introduction of motorized vehicles that signaled the end of the line for the bicycle and the machine gun.

During the war, the Red Army used the ROKS-2 for the first time in the fight against the Finns. Later it was also used on the other fronts. This flamethrower was disguised as a rifle, the lance embedded in the converted wooden stock of a Mosin-Nagant rifle, with original sling and with ignition by pulling the trigger. For the firing method, the Soviets used special primers made from standard 7.62x25mm cartridge cases. The two incendiary tanks on the back carrier were boxed with sheet metal to simulate a rucksack. The bottle with the propellant hung crosswise under the box.

When filled, the ROKS-2 weighed about 23kg (50lb) and required two men to operate. Towards the end of the war, smaller quantities of the simplified ROKS-3, on which the tanks were no longer covered, were sent to the front. Although both models had proven to be quite reliable in action, after the war the military leadership demanded an easier-to-operate model with a longer range.

After testing and introduction as the LPO-50, the new model went into series production in the spring of 1955. LPO is the abbreviation of Lyogkiy Pyekhotnyy Ognyemyot (Легкий Пехотный Огнемет), i.e. a light infantry flamethrower. The weight itself, however, was not lightened, because the LPO-50 weighed 23kg (50lb) just like its predecessor.

Instead, the construction had changed completely. The backpack now consists of three cylindrical tanks arranged next to each other, each with a capacity of 3.5 liters (0.76 gallons). Each tank has a filler neck. A powder chamber is then inserted and screwed into each filler neck. An additional pressure relief valve per tank, non-return valves on each hose connection and a grip safety device on the front of the grip provide the necessary safety.

To make the LPO-50 ready for use, first insert one powder charge per tank into the powder chamber and one PP9-RO primer cartridge into the socket above each. At the bottom of each chamber there are six holes through which the gases flow into the tank after ignition and push the incendiary mixture through the hose to the lance. Underneath all three tanks is a common manifold to the hose.

The lance resembles a rifle with a stock, pistol grip and folding bipod. At 85cm (34in), it is rather long and unwieldy. On both sides and below the muzzle are three chambers for one incendiary cartridge each with PP9-RO primer. Each chamber is connected to a specific tank. The battery for the electrical control and ignition system is located in the butt. It lasts for about 600 ignitions.

The shot is activated by pressing the trigger, which sends an electric impulse to the glow igniters of the two primers. A switch allows the operator to select the desired tank. It was thus possible to fill the tanks with different mixtures and fire them as required. The incendiary mixture ignites on the incendiary cartridge when it leaves the muzzle.

Without reloading, the flamethrower could fire three shots – one from each tank. The duration of a shot was 2-3 seconds and the range 50 to 70m (55 to 77yd), depending on the viscosity of the mixture. If there was a tailwind, even a little more. This was a very short firing time and in reports of the East German Army (NVA) this was also criticized by soldiers. They also felt that the effect on the target was insufficient.

In a combined arms engagement, the platoons and squads of flamethrower units were to be linked up with motorized rifle units. The flamethrowers then accompanied the rifle platoon or squad but had to move hidden behind it. Experience had shown that if they were discovered, they quickly drew the enemy’s fire. Only when a target could not be eliminated with the other infantry weapons were flamethrowers used. In this case, using camouflage and covering fire, they had to advance up to a distance of about 40 to 50m (44 to 55yd) from the target.

For all its advantages, the LPO-50 also had the characteristic disadvantages of a flamethrower. In a real battle, such weapons were not only dangerous for the enemy, but also for the own operating crew and the surrounding comrades. For this reason, the military was also looking for alternative ways to increase the infantry’s firepower.

And so, at the beginning of 1975, they introduced the new type of infantry rocket launcher, the RPO “Rys”. It could be carried and operated by one man, weighed only 3.5kg (7,7lb) empty, fired rockets filled with 4 liters (0.9 gallons) of napalm up to 200 meters (220 yards) away and could be reloaded. The LPO-50 thus became obsolete and was gradually taken out of service, stored and in some cases passed on to friendly countries.

In the 1950s, the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China intensified their cooperation in military and weapons technology. China showed great interest in the new flamethrower and even acquired the rights to manufacture it under license in their own country. They only changed a few minor details in the production process, otherwise their Type 58 corresponded to the Russian model. A longer series of tests was carried out with different incendiary mixtures.

Based on the experience gained, China developed a modernized version in the 1970s. This Type 74 had an improved lance with only two incendiary cartridge chambers, as well as only two tanks. Overall, the flamethrower became somewhat lighter, although the capacity of the two tanks was increased to 4 liters (0.9 gallons) each. The Type 74 is still in active service today and is regularly and impressively staged for the press photographers during various exercises and demonstrations.

Apart from China, only one independent production in Romania is known to date. All other Warsaw Pact countries received their LPO-50s from Russian production. Some of the decommissioned ROK old stocks were also passed on to friendly states. The German Democratic Republic acquired larger quantities and used them in the NVA forces as the ‘Light Flamethrower LPO-50’. The earliest known service record dates back to 1966. Flamethrowers from Soviet and Chinese production were also used in Vietnam. However, their active use was limited because the required quantities of flammable liquids were often not available at the front.

Of course, the worldwide distribution also led to devices disappearing into dark channels time and again. When the Irish Republican Army (IRA) attacked the Derryard vehicle checkpoint on 13 December 1989, an LPO-50 flamethrower was also present. British units subsequently recovered at least six Russian-made units. How and where they came from is still unknown.