If the last true firearm innovation was the polymer frame, we’re about 50 years into the current technological drought. Like a bag of Legos, a successful gun maker must put together something that is (or appears to be) a new combination of existing ideas if it wants to be novel. Another option for success might be a new product that does something that’s been overpriced or neglected in the market. In the late 1990s KelTec CNC Industries did all three with its P32. Sturm, Ruger & Co. took note and re-designed its LCP vest pocket gun line in 2016. Here’s how they compare.

KelTec’s P32

The original KelTec P32 combined the twin innovations of lightweight polymer and aluminum materials with the well-established Browning tilting barrel recoil mechanism to make a pistol smaller, lighter and more controllable than any predecessor in the same caliber. Due to all this and the general economy that’s a hallmark of KelTec CNC, the cost was and has remained affordable.

The P32 has an empty weight of less than 8 ounces, dimensions of 0.75×3.5×5 inches and a capacity of 7 + 1. The magazine orientation is nearly vertical which makes for a compact, efficient size while allowing cartridge placement that avoids the problem of “rim-lock” with the semi-rimmed .32 ACP cartridge. Magazines are made by Mec-Gar—another brand name synonymous with reliable quality. Dual recoil springs round out the features that mitigate recoil while keeping the weight down.

The only slide stop is internal, powered by the empty magazine follower once the last shot is fired. KelTec’s P32 has no external safety controls and a sloped back slide and frame for fast, snag-free draw from a pocket or holster. The grip texture is outstanding, and the fire-control system makes use of a hammer that’s pre-charged to a half-cock position with the action of the slide. Like a GLOCK, it’s at half-cock when chambered, and the lightened DA pull weighs in around 6 or 7 pounds.
The original trigger/hammer design had one notable downside: After firing, a full release of the trigger was required for a subsequent shot. A partial release of the trigger produced a felt and audible click that can be mistaken for a traditional trigger reset. If that partially released trigger was pulled, the hammer would fall from the half-cock position. This normally causes a light strike on the cartridge primer and a failure to fire. Likewise, if a trigger pull is attempted with the slide out of battery, the trigger must be fully released once the slide is forward, or the same light hammer strike will result.

The P3AT

The sights on the original P32 were minimalist at best and remained unchanged in 2003 when KelTec released their next version—the .380 ACP! Calling it the model P3AT, the main changes were to the slide con-tour adding mass, elimination of the internal slide stop and a magazine capacity necessary reduced to 6 rounds to accommodate the larger cartridge in the same size grip. The newer, more powerful cartridge produced greater recoil, but the lower ammunition cost and increased stopping power made an attractive package that matched the sales of its predecessor.

In time, KelTec made improvements to the designs of both models. The extractor design was updated and included an external flat spring, giving the slide a distinctive look. Two removable internal parts, the ejector and the spring and guide rod seat (at the front of the slide), were eliminated so that a field strip had two fewer tiny parts to misplace. The slide was beefed up to a more blocky shape that included square post and notch sights that, while tiny, were better than the originals.

Ruger’s LCP Versions

Within 5 years of the release of the P3AT, KelTec was paid the most sincere compliment when Sturm, Ruger & Co. decided to make its own version of this highly successful pocket pistol. Ruger’s new model, the LCP®, had all of the same basic features of the P3AT with the updated cosmetic style of the Ruger P345 and SR9 models. Ruger’s pistol had the same fire control, capacity, sights and size but brought back the slide stop in a new way. This feature was external and manually operated only. The pistol can be locked open by the operator but will not do so automatically on an empty magazine. The grip texture of the LCP is less aggressive than the P32 or P3AT. This can be seen as an improvement or step backwards depending on the user’s preference.

One year into the manufacture of the LCP, Ruger decided to address the issue of the partial trigger release permitting a hammer fall. This product recall was officially intended to correct a potential safety issue, accidental discharge from a fall, but also eliminated the light strike possibility related to either a partial trigger release or out of battery trigger pull. Only the first serial number series was affected (numbers beginning with 370), and those pistols corrected by the recall were marked with a diamond-shaped stamp to the frame on the top ledge of the hammer cutout. Eventually, KelTec pistols were similarly updated.

Ruger has an excellent reputation for quality and durability, so the new LCP pistols were taken seriously and sold like hot cakes. KelTec’s slightly lower retail cost and other features like the sharper grip texture and the lower recoiling .32 ACP option kept its sales brisk as well. All of this success coincided with a widespread drought of .380 ACP ammunition availability in the U.S. around the same time.

Ruger’s next batch of improvements came in the form of the LCP Custom. This model had a polished blue finish to the sides of the slide, an aluminum trigger and substantial upgrade to the sights. The new sights were removable parts that were much taller than the original and featured a white dot in the front. Better sights fulfilled part of the goal of turning the LCP from a stubby pocket rocket into a truly accurate, shootable sidearm. The rest of this task required improvements to the trigger and grip that lead Ruger designers to the latest evolution.

Ruger’s LCP II hit the scene in 2016 and represented a more substantial re-design than those that came before. The external slide stop and magazine design were both upgraded to lock the gun open after the last shot fired. The new sights split the difference between the low-profile originals and the more usable tall versions of the Custom model. Forward slide serrations were added, and an updated grip texture coupled with a wider section to the rear half of the grip frame improved the shooter’s reaction to recoil. All of these improvements were just icing on the cake to the biggest change of all: a single-action trigger!

The LCP II employs a concealed hammer that functions with a crisp break and an even better reset for follow-up shots. With the improvements to the grip, sights and the automatic slide lock, the LCP II pistol shoots like a “real gun!” This author and others have used the LCP II in IDPA competitions with respectable results. The model enjoys back-wards compatibility with original LCP mag-azines, but those will not activate the slide stop. The wider grip has minimal impact on concealability, and the single-action trigger is supported with a trigger safety and internal safety features that prevent discharge without a pull of the trigger.

Solid Designs

Despite years of evolution, an original or current production KelTec P32 remains a viable self-defense pocket pistol that is lighter and easier to shoot than any previously comparable designs. The latest version of the Ruger LCP II offers shootability that exceeds that of anything currently available in the same size or weight. Along the path from A to B is an unbroken chain of solid designs with incremental improvements that never deviated from the innovative concept of remaking the vest pocket gun, using modern materials and the time-tested and efficient Browning recoil operating system.

For years, the firearm suppressor manufacturing icon known as Gemtech has produced a number of superlative designs. One of their older offerings, the Aurora, was listed in the catalogue for years but only teased the reader. Caught between the boundaries of regulation and better innovations, until recently it was only available to government customers. This model was intended for a very specific role and uses wipes and an artificial environment (coolant) to achieve the necessary sound reduction for a 9mm pistol in an uncommonly compact size. 

The unfortunate downside of this arrangement is an exceptionally short service life. Wipes are a disposable technology, and the official ATF regulatory position requires only licensed Class 2 manufacturers be authorized to produce replacements. For this reason, the Aurora was relegated strictly to government and military customers willing to send the used units back to their maker for restoration if and when it was necessary. 

The design, a specific and task-oriented one, was to equip a compact 9mm pistol (like a GLOCK 26) with a quiet, reliable and compact suppressor that was ideal for use in emergency situations like a downed pilot or some other overseas contingency operation. The Aurora, as specified, fit this mission admirably without the need for hyper-engineered baffle stacks or large suppressor bodies that would limit reliability or otherwise interfere with the mission. 

For the Public 

Recently, Gemtech released an upgraded version to the general public—the Aurora-II, complete with a rebuild service for all to enjoy. For less than $40, an Aurora-II can be returned to the manufacturer and have the wipes and coolant replaced; the good-as-new unit is then re-sent to the customer (turnaround time is less than 2 weeks). Current owners in need of this service should contact Smith and Wesson, the new home of Gemtech, for a return authorization and shipping instructions. 

The advertised performance of the Aurora-II is 137dB, and recent testing verified that value for a majority of the first 20 shots (a reduction of 25dB or more). Because of the nature of a wipe suppressor design, subsonic ammunition must be selected that uses a round nose and a non-expanding bullet type. Figures below come from test shots using a brand new Aurora-II and PPU brand 158-grain 9mm round nose subsonic ammunition. Sound measurements were conducted with a Larson Davis Model 800B using the A scale. 

Wipe Design 

One advantage that comes from a wipe and spacer design is the suppressor can be used in either direction. Gemtech’s Aurora-II has threads on both ends to accommodate 1/2×28- inch right-hand and metric 13.5×1 left-hand threads. On the other hand, one disadvantage is that the initial shots fired through virgin wipes can suffer from accuracy limitations. Test shots recorded above were simultaneously fired into a target, but it was found that accuracy and bullet stability was only affected for the first four shots. Accuracy limitations at 10 to 15 yards would still keep a center of mass shot within the target area of a man-sized silhouette. 

The semi-rigid polyurethane wipes are manufactured with an “X” cut through the center to allow passage of the fired bullets but enough sturdiness to resist damage from the shot and maintain back pressure necessary for cycling a recoil-operated pistol. The test firearm, a GLOCK 26 equipped with a Lone Wolf Distributors threaded barrel, cycled reliably for the first 20 shots, but once the wipes were shot through, stoppages were frequent. A blowback pistol subsequently tested continued to fully function regardless of the condition of the Aurora-II wipes. 

It should be noted that while expended wipes may not be replaceable by the user, the coolant within the spacers may be replenished and will offer some restoration of sound reduction—just not as much as with fresh wipes. Gemtech has traditionally used Vaseline® or a similar type of petroleum jelly as an artificial environment, but other options are listed in the Owner’s Manual. 

Final Thoughts 

Suppressor designs of the 21st century have evolved to the point where the state-of-the-art consists of efficient baffle designs and adaptive couplers capable of quiet and reliable functioning on a variety of host firearms. If properly mounted, these designs will give years and thousands of rounds of faithful maintenance-free service to their users without any need for coolant material or specialized ammunition. All of this notwithstanding, the Aurora-II occupies a small corner of compact effectiveness that still makes use of older technology in a way that the best modern cans can’t … at least, not yet! 

If imitation is the sincerest form of flattery, optimization must be a close second. Ironically, a great way to measure the success of any gun design is to gaze upon the vast array of aftermarket parts and accessories available to modify the original. A robust secondary market can only occur when the primary market is healthy enough to support subsequent adaptations.

Enter the Ruger model 22/45 Mark 3 pistol. The design is evolutionary if not revolutionary in that it combines the rugged reliability of Ruger’s first handgun made over 65 years ago with a modern polymer grip frame that reduces weight (and cost) while emulating the even more venerable 1911. Prior versions of the 22/45 lacked the elegance of the current model with limited grip texture, adaptability, and let’s face it, early 90’s cosmetics that were not the strongest for this gun maker. Additional safety features were added to the Mark 3 permitting sales in all domestic markets and were otherwise a benefit (or minor nuisance) to their owners. Among the array of features available to remake the 22/45 in one’s own image, this author chose a number of small ones available from TandemKross (TK) and one big one from Tactical Solutions.

Tactical Solutions of Boise, ID, has been in business since 2002, making barrels, receivers, conversion kits and even sound suppressors. Replacing the all-steel Ruger-barreled upper receiver with one from Tactical Solutions (mostly aluminum) remakes the pistol in a much lighter package with excellent adjustable sights, an optional threaded muzzle and a subdued finish that is a better match to the polymer frame than the original. The only feature loss at this point is the deletion of the chamber loaded indicator, a feature that never enjoyed significant consumer driven demand. Due to the nature of the host Ruger pistol design, the Tactical Solutions upper receiver bears a serial number, related manufacturer markings and must be treated legally like any other complete firearm or serialized firearm receiver.

Threaded Tactical Solutions 22/45 hybrids have become a staple for those who wanted a .22 pistol that was light weight, rugged and suppressor ready from a manufacturer reliable enough to ensure correct alignment of the threads and engagement shoulder. Mark 3’s front and back strap checkering along with Ruger’s rubber 1911 diamond grips make for excellent ergonomics in the shooter’s hand. The cosmetic details of this union include a matte anodized finish that offers a seamless mate to most light weight 1” sound suppressors or the flush fitting thread protector included with each threaded receiver.

Where this combination ends, the Tandem Kross options continue to enhance with a variety of substitute parts and accessories. Perhaps most valuable is the “Kanewolf” slingshot kit that replaces the locking ball and detent bolt stop/release with a shorter spring-loaded bolt stop that will automatically disengage when the bolt is retracted in the absence of an empty magazine. This corrects the most glaring departure of the Ruger 22/45 series manual of arms from those of traditional semi-automatic pistols. Once installed, the pistol no longer requires a downward motion of the thumb to release the bolt.

A close second in enhancements would be the hammer bushing that replaces three internal parts responsible for the Mark 3 magazine disconnect safety. On combat handguns, the presence of a magazine safety is a topic of much debate but for Ruger Mark 3 pistols that require multiple manipulations of the trigger and sear for assembly and disassembly, such a feature adds undesired complexity to an otherwise tricky process.

Two more obvious traditional enhancements include an extended magazine release and “Plus 1 Pro” bumper magazine extension that adds one round to the original 10-round 22/45 magazine capacity. This floor plate also incorporates an optional spring-loaded feature that will more positively eject the magazine from the grip. Most recreation and sport shooters have no need to perform a lightning fast reload with a .22 pistol, but for those wishing to model the performance of a combat centerfire pistol, the combination of all the features listed above makes for a better rim-fire substitute over the original.

Additional enhancements are also available and include the “Fire Starter” titanium firing pin, “Game Changer” compensator, the “Victory” Trigger and “Challenger” Charging Handle. While the benefits of a lighter titanium firing pin are subtle, the “Victory” trigger has a flat geometry and two set screw adjustments to limit both rearward and forward travel. Serious target shooters with the sensitivity to benefit from these will be the ultimate judge, but even this author’s more rugged tastes were forced to admit a noticeable reduction in perceived recoil and muzzle flip when the “Game Changer” compensator was added to the muzzle threads. If you have the need to tame the recoil of such a light weight .22 LR this accessory definitely does its part.

The “Challenger” Charging Handle was ultimately not used because the female mounting surfaces were intended for the tapered bolt serrations of the newer Ruger models, and this particular gun was assembled using an earlier squared-off bolt. The benefits of such an addition may only be necessary on a pistol assembled with an oversized optical sight limiting manual access to the rear of the gun. In any case, it’s better to have more options than too few.

The finishing touch to this project was done with a set of aluminum “Super Grips” offered for sale by Tandem Kross. These items are not TK originals but helpfully marketed through them and well worth the expense to enhance the already elegant grip ergonomics. The professionals at Tandem Kross clearly recognize quality when they see it and can be relied upon to continue to innovate and market new ways to optimize, adapt or modify classic designs to make them better. In each step of assembly they also support their products with well-produced and easy-to-understand online video demonstrations of correct installation and use. Even the least mechanically inclined user can see for himself what is required to install and use every product offered by Tandem Kross even before he makes the decision to buy.

If the first rule of a gunfight is to bring a gun, before it even comes to that… you should already have a light! It’s widely understood that dangerous encounters are more likely at night and indoors, both of which have a high potential for being low light situations. Even when significant ambient light is present, shadows and the positions of participants may necessitate the use of a personal light. From target/threat identification to avoiding physical hazards to movement, the utility of such a light shouldn’t be ignored.

Eliminating Excuses:

Unlike a knife or firearm, a light will serve the user well in multiple circumstances where a weapon is not needed and can be taken into secure areas without special permission. Furthermore, quality flashlights tend to be of modest cost by comparison to guns and knives or multi-tools. Like knives and guns, lights can be had in virtually limitless variations of size, power, and control options. For these reasons, one should never omit a personal light from their everyday carry.

Since carrying a weapon is a serious matter, so it follows, one should put a comparable level of consideration when choosing a companion light as well. The reader should consider that any time they feel the need to choose a particular piece of security equipment the need for a comparable level of utility in a portable light should already have been selected:

• Service size handgun–full size/power flashlight
• Personal/patrol carbine–longer range, high powered, or weapon mounted light
• Compact concealable handgun–small discrete sized hand held light
• Small pocket gun–miniature pocket light
• Spare magazine/speed loader–fresh duplicate batteries
• Second knife/gun accessible by operator’s support/weak side–back up light carried in alternate location
• Weapon lanyard and/or secure carrier–holster/lanyard for retaining light
• Firearm parts kit for range repair–replacement bulb, clip, lanyard parts
• Flat Dark Earth gun and/or carrier–comparable option for light and/or carrier

Options:

The main point of this article is that a serious gun carrier ought to insist on having a light with them at least as often as they are armed. Because adding a light imposes some burden of space, weight, and organization, the size of that choice often becomes the primary factor. Advice frequently given for firearms of choosing the biggest one you can use effectively and carry all the time is a great place to start. A bewildering array of small and powerful lighting products are available so a quick tour of the options is appropriate.

Controls:

Typical hand held lights are ~1” in diameter, 3-9” in length, and are activated by a push-button at the rear with a switch that goes on momentarily when partially compressed, and clicks to stay on when depressed all the way. This allows the operator to hold in a “fist up” orientation and control the output with the thumb of the support hand only. More complicated options exist that include strobe effects, variable output, and even programmable combinations with considerable variety.

These expanding features may seem tempting but without a similar increase in training and/or practice are sure to complicate their use when needed in a crisis. Most of us have little opportunity to train, practice, or engage in competition involving firearms in low light circumstances. If one chooses an unconventional or complicated light, they should spend some significant time getting used to deploying it alongside their weapon of choice even if all they can manage are dry-fire drills in the privacy of their home.

Quality:

Not all 1” rear pressure switch handheld flashlights are equal. An inexpensive model offered at the cash register of your local discount hardware store may look the part but not hold up to the rigors of daily carry and frequent use. The electronic connections, mechanical switches, threaded assemblies and lenses are all potential weaknesses if not properly constructed. Likewise, choosing good quality batteries or other consumables (e.g.-bulbs, lanyards, etc.) is equally important.

Brightness:

Without going into a lengthy discussion of output (often described in “lumens”), one should consider that the brightest light may not always be the best. The two main advantages of a high output light are increased range, which is less useful indoors, and the ability to temporarily blind or distract an adversary. On the other hand, a powerful light may generate more heat, consume batteries rapidly, draw fire or other negative attention, and in some cases produce reflections that can temporarily distract or blind the user.

Size:

Like concealable firearms, smaller lights tend to be favored for carry as long as they are capable of suitable output, duration, and can be successfully manipulated with one hand. A large light generally comes with greater battery life and if necessary can have additional utility as a blunt instrument to use as a contact weapon or to break glass as needed. Lantern lights with large flat bottom power sources and directional bezels can be positioned and directed for long term illumination into a hazardous approach or used to illuminate an area allowing the operator to use both hands as needed. The obvious portability limitation of a large light notwithstanding, one or more of them can be kept ready where there’s room enough to store a long gun.

Weapon Mounted:

As to long guns with a light, most mounting solutions are accessible using the support hand some distance down the barrel (to limit its shadow). A number of storage compartments are also available for modern long guns that can hold cleaning kits and spare parts or ammunition. Some are designed specifically for spare batteries and light parts for good reason but those things can also be stored in non-standardized compartments or with an ammunition supply off the gun. While rarely employed, a secondary light in or on a rifle or shotgun remains an option and can permit multiple lights to solve different tactical problems. The most useful of these combinations are low output LED’s for discretely navigating a dark indoor space coupled with a high output tactical light for target illumination.

Handguns with mounted lights can rarely be carried without some kind of specialized holster that accommodates the light. Likewise, those same holsters tend to be less effective when the light is removed. Adding or removing a light from a sidearm is at best a 2-handed process requiring some fine motor control–both of which are problematic in a crisis. Whether on a pistol or long gun, some combinations permit quick removal of the light while others are more permanently mounted in place. The versatility of a removable light that can go from a rifle to a pistol or used as a handheld torch must be weighed against a more secure mount and weapon specific ergonomics. Having more than one light might be the better choice.

Weapon mounted lights are frequently activated by a pressure switch that allows constant or momentary illumination. Those that require grip compression may be problematic if the ergonomics promote fatigue or have a potential to relate sympathetically with the shooter’s firing hand. Pressure switches that have wires between them and the light will permit the user to fine tune the location of the activation but can snag during movement and manipulation. This writer prefers a thumb actuated switch directly on the light for these reasons.

Techniques:

For normal use, most of us need little instruction on how to use a flashlight to find our car keys on the floor of a dark theater but using sound tactical techniques for such a task is good practice and may help you avoid irritating a fellow moviegoer. Tactical use generally means controlling and manipulating the light with one hand and judiciously limiting the path of the beam to items you need to illuminate for the minimal duration required to accomplish your task. Ironically, the greater skill with a tactical light lies in limiting the use so you don’t waste battery life or unnecessarily telegraph your location.

Limiting light exposure by only illuminating for brief periods and using the lowest available setting is the most common way. For circumstances where the light is overly bright for the situation, cupping your fist around the bezel can obscure most of the output and control the rest by releasing your grip at one end is another. A colored or semi-opaque lens cover can dull the output of a light and if attached to a flip open lens cover can be rapidly moved in and out of the beam path. It also helps to keep in mind that the closer one can get to something the better the light will be at illuminating it effectively. Another significant skill is combining moving and light activation to avoid being targeted. If avoiding potential threats, even if not actively engaging them, moving just after deactivating a light is a sound practice. If moving with a light on, altering direction for subsequent movement with the light off will help prevent tracking. Keeping the beam spot of a light farther from the operator prevents targeting from angles behind the user and when going to or from low ready it’s important to only activate light when on target so that the moving beam spot doesn’t track back to a user’s feet.

When searching continuously with a light it’s important not to crowd cover for the same reasons. A beam spot can reflect back to the source if close and passively illuminate it from the surface. Lighter surfaces will reflect more intensely than darker ones and reflective surfaces can cause additional sources of secondary illumination. An astute observer may also see the shrinking size of a beam spot and deduce the approach of the source as it moves. Handheld lights not attached to a weapon allow the user to place some distance between their cover or firing position if they extend the light arm above or to the side of their location. If taking a stationary position, the light can be turned on and rolled out away from the shooter or otherwise placed so that they illuminate a target area from another angle and source. Placing a light in a hallway and backing away from it will offer some concealment even if cover is not available. Likewise, leaving the light entirely and taking up a different position can distract opponents. These tactics are even more sound if one has a secondary light at their disposal so they don’t have to abandon their only source of illumination.

Additional Considerations:

Using a light as an impact weapon or visual assault on an aggressor can be an intermediate step in a force continuum prior to employing a firearm. Scalloped bezel surfaces may enhance an impact effect; however, this often comes at the cost of reclassifying the item as a weapon in certain jurisdictions (such as TSA regulations for air travel). Law enforcement training has trended away from teaching the use of a hand held light as an impact weapon so the user ought to limit plans for that circumstance or seek out dedicated martial arts training for that purpose.

The majority of new lights employ LED sources instead of traditional incandescent bulbs. LED’s are more durable, consume less battery life, generate less heat, and their color can be selected from the lighting elements used in manufacturing. Multiple LED’s can be employed in their construction to give output and programable options. The colors of these lights and beam spots tend to be more monochromatic than incandescent bulbs and those peculiar colors may have unpredictable reflection colors when shone on fluorescent or unusual surfaces.

Any small light will have a finite battery life and tiny pocket tactical models may have a battery life on the order of minutes. If sitting unused until emergencies, they can be counted on to deliver that life unless the batteries are particularly old or experience corrosion. If a light is in normal use there are no “fuel gauges” to let the user know their power source is near empty. Another hazard is inadvertently switching the light on in a pocket or holder–choosing a carrier that prevents this is well worth the expense and real estate on one’s belt. This particular unit from Holster’s Plus (see: http://www.holstersplus.com/collections/light-holders/products/m3-batt-pack and “batt-pack_grande.jpeg” image) will hold a removable weapon mounted light and two spare batteries while locking the switch in place.

Tactical illumination is not without drawbacks. Weapon mounted lights can loose the deterrent effect if their brightness conceal the handgun attached to them. Dust and muzzle gasses from firing can be lit like a fog obscuring targets from the user while silhouetting their position for adversaries. Reflective surfaces like glass and mirrors have the potential to blind the user or their teammates during a search. Weapon handling while using a light requires an extra dimension of skill but there are fewer opportunities to train and practice under low light conditions. If one has a light in a tactical situation, the correct approach may be to stay dark and avoid giving away their location. Without that light; however, there is no option to use it!

Introduction: Serial Numbers

According to company literature, the first Glock pistols imported into the U.S. came in January of 1986. These guns had serial numbers beginning with a two letter alpha prefix of “AF” followed by a three digit number. This means for every two letter combination, there were up to 1,000 pistols produced with numbers from 000 to 999. As of this writing, current new production Glock pistols bear serial numbers with a four letter and three number combination, a testament to the brand’s success and longevity over the past quarter century.

Most firearm manufactures who employ sequential serial numbering systems would not guarantee the sequence of numbers exactly matches production order but on the longer time frame they generally follow that trend. That is to say, a firearm bearing the serial number ABC001 may not have been completed prior to the same model numbered ABD001 but it’s a fair assumption that they were made around the same time and that EFG001 came later. Notable exceptions to the standard serial number structure are firearms ordered with specified serial number ranges and formats for law enforcement agencies and commemorative models.

Using this assumption as a framework, this article will seek to identify changes in individual Glock cosmetic and design features and identify their sequence in the model history. While a strict serial number sequence is an inexact assumption, an accurate time line of importation for serialized firearms can be dated through records available from Glock.

Overview of Glock Generations, Terminology and Associated Models

Because of the nature of the firearms manufacturing industry, terminology can be inexact due to the influence of non-anticipated design changes, marketing language, and customer terminology not originating from the manufacturer. In some cases, this post production vernacular sets the standard for terminology in use by most. This stands to reason given that the number of people buying, using, and writing about the firearms far out numbers those within the company that might otherwise like to control the terminology. This is how distinct Glock generations came to be understood.

Glock pistols are categorized into four distinct generations (with a 4th ultimately being officially acknowledged by the gun’s markings). The first generation guns had a relatively uniform grip texture around the entire handle of the frame behind and below the trigger guard and consisted of the original Glock model 17 and a few scarce early model 19 pistols. The second generation guns had rectangular checkering on the front and back grip surfaces and can safely be counted on to include the models 17 through at least 24.

Third generation guns are described as those with finger grooves superimposed on the front strap checkering and an accessory rail forward of the trigger guard on models large enough to incorporate this feature. The addition of a slight “thumb rest” at the upper edge of the grip is also among these third generation features and this particular feature relates to U.S. importation criteria.

Finally, 4th generation Glock models incorporated rectangular checkering throughout the grip surface, a smaller grip with back strap extensions, a reversible magazine release, and the slide/recoil spring assembly was updated to include a dual spring for all models. The new slide and guide rod assemblies are not back-compatible with earlier models.

While these categories are useful, the details in some cases can muddy the waters. Several models of Glock firearms were made bearing the 3rd generation finger grooves but no associated accessory rail. Guns of this type are rare and typically described as transitional or “Generation 2.5.” For the collector or firearm examiner wishing to evaluate this firearm, it’s safe to say that guns of this type were produced in relatively low numbers and for a short period of time. The early versions of the subcompact Glock 26 and 27 pistols (9mm and .40 S&W) produced around the same time had finger grooves on the front strap of the pistol that were devoid of checkering that eventually appeared on later 3rd generation versions of those models. The slightly larger subcompact models 29 and 30 (10mm and .45 ACP) were always made with the checkered finger grooves but eventually produced with the previously omitted accessory rail. The earlier non-railed versions of the Glock 29 and 30 frames were made for a longer period of time than the early smooth finger grooved versions of the model 26 and 27 frames.

All models produced during the various generations were made consistently with the features of that generation. For that reason, early models like the Glock 17 will have versions from each of those generations. The Glock model numbers appeared sequentially although some models like the select fire 18 and the .380 models (25 and 28) are less common due to NFA and import restrictions.

Generation 1 Glock Features

The Generation 1 guns are an exclusive club consisting of only the model Glock 17 and a very few of the earliest model Glock 19 pistols. (The Glock 18 is the select fire version of the model 17 and while 1st generation versions exist, because of their rarity and distinct internal geometry they won’t be discussed in this article.) A long-slide version of the 17 known as the 17L was also produced using 1st generation frames but the slides are interchangeable and the frames are indistinguishable with other model 17s. These will be described hereafter as belonging to the standard frame size designed for pistols chambered in 9mm Luger, .357 SIG, .40 S&W, .380 ACP, and eventually the .45 GAP (wide frame guns came later). The model 17 is categorized as a full sized pistol while the 19 is considered to be a compact in size. Both models were almost exclusively chambered for 9mm Luger although a few special exceptions have been known to exist (e.g.-9x21mm in Europe).

The first Glock pistols imported into the U.S. came with serial numbers beginning with two letters followed by the typical three numbers and a “US” suffix indicating they were for export to the United States. The two characteristic proof mark logos appeared on the frames, slides, and barrels while additional markings, such as a three letter manufacturer’s code and a pentagon appeared on the barrel only.

The official serial number in the United States is the one appearing on the frame which includes the “US” suffix. These numbers appear on a metal insert on the bottom of the frame just ahead of the trigger guard. The early versions of these were black in color and the “US” appears to be in a different font than the alpha-numeric characters that make up the rest of the numbers. These black serial number plates were used in the early Generation 2 Glock 19 pistols in the same serial number ranges as their Generation 1 Glock 17 siblings.

Glock pistols have always had two cartouches on the top and bottom of the right side of the grip. The upper cartouche on the generation 1 pistols reads: “GLOCK, INC., SMYRNA, GA.” while the lower marking read “US. Pat. 4,539, 889”. Each of these is a single line of text that appears with embossed characters over a smooth background surface in the polymer of the frame surrounded by the existing texture.

The model 19 had another feature change from the 17 to add points towards those required for importation into the U.S. The otherwise smooth trigger of the model 17 was replaced with a serrated version. All Glock pistols the size of the model 19 or smaller were fitted with serrated triggers for importation, although it’s not uncommon for their owners to prefer the smoother trigger and retrofit the parts since they are interchangeable. Another key difference between the models 17 and 19 is the geometry of the barrel lug and matching locking piece inside the frame. They are positioned differently which is why barrels are not interchangeable between the full sized and compact frames. This distinction remains in subsequent generations and models/calibers.

Generation 2 Glock Features

Because the Glock 17 preceded the Glock 19, there was initially no need to distinguish the two frames by markings. In fact, the very first Glock 19 pistols (1st generation) were actually made from Glock 17 frames that were trimmed to accommodate the smaller slide and magazine. An apparent mold mark on the left front corner of the trigger guard was eventually used for a marking location indicating which frame was being produced. This subsequent mold mark consists of a circular cartouche with the number 17 or 19 depending on the frame (earlier model 17’s had no such mark).

As has been described above, the main change that constitutes the generation 2 models is the retexturing of the grip surface. This rectangular pattern grip checkering on the front and back of the grip is often referred to as “grenade” checkering. Early generation 2 pistols were model 17’s and 19’s that retained the two single line grip cartouches on the right side, the 17/19 mold marks on the left, and Austrian proof marks of the generation 1 models, but not all had the silver colored serial number insert plate.

Around 1990 and about half-way through the two-letter serial number ranges, Glock started importing the models 20 (10mm), 21 (.45 ACP), 22, and 23 (both .40 S&W). By this time, the Austrian proof marks and the 17/19 mold mark were no longer present. The models 22 and 23 are essentially the .40 S&W versions of the 17 and 19 respectively; however, the more powerful cartridge forced a design change that added an additional pin to retain the locking piece in the frame. Some rare and early versions of these pistols may not have had the additional (3rd) pin. The models 20 and 21 were the first of the wide frame sizes made to accommodate the 10mm Auto and .45 ACP cartridges, respectively. All of these models are 2nd generation or later with both locking block pins in their design.

Prior to reaching the end of the two-letter serial number ranges, a second line was added to the upper cartouche on the grip of the pistol which now read:

MADE IN AUSTRIA
GLOCK, INC., SMYRNA, GA.

Right around the time of the roll over from two-letter serial numbers to three-letter series, the internal parts of the pistol changed from being mostly black in color to silver. This feature is not always a reliable one to consider because older guns receiving factory or armorer upgrades often have newer silver colored parts including some early upgrades to pre-EH### pistols that required an enhanced trigger bar that would increase the sear/striker engagement. These improved early trigger bars had a “+” stamped on the top rear portion near the area of striker engagement. While this upgraded trigger bar had a distinct shape, this author has seen at least one example of an earlier shaped part that has a bronze/gold color.

Shortly after the change from two-letter to three-letter serial numbers, a second line was added to the lower cartouche on the grip with two additional patent numbers. The next internal upgrade in this approximate chronology was angled cuts made to the interior of the frame to relieve the back two corners where the locking piece sits. Without this modification, those two corners were prone to the initiation of vertical cracks in the polymer due to the repeated impact of the corners of the metal locking piece to the frame. The relief cuts seemed to prevent the occurrence and could also be added to older models after the cracks had begun (essentially removing the cracks in the process of making the cuts at their location).

As with other internal upgrades, because these were often done by the factory after production, their presence tells less about the age of the pistol than their absence. Hypothetically, were the people at Glock, Inc. to discover an old batch of early generation 2 serialized frames; they would surely complete these upgrades before assembling them into pistols to be sold as new. Likewise, pistols returned to the factory as trade-in towards new models might also have similar upgrades.

The list of generation 2 changes above can be described sequentially based on the assumption of the serial numbers being sequential although this may not strictly be true. A more accurate description would be to say the changes listed here occurred during a watershed period during the middle of the second generation. The change from black internal parts to silver upgrade parts, the locking piece relief cuts, and the addition of a second line of text of the lower cartouche are all relatively contemporary changes roughly coinciding with the change from the two-letter to three-letter serial number range. Also in this time frame, the spring and guide rod assembly was upgraded to a one piece unit.

A few years later, in 1994, Glock began importing the model 24, which is essentially the 2nd generation equivalent of the 17L described earlier chambered in .40 S&W. With the exception of custom marked guns, all model 24’s and all subsequent model numbers have at least three letters in the serial number range. Some time later the angle of the right rear surface of the ejection port was changed from a 90 degree angle to something slightly larger. This change occurred between the introduction of the model 24 and the subcompact models 26 and 27 in 9mm and .40 S&W respectively. What this means is that one may encounter a model 24 with the earlier 90 degree ejection port angle but all models 26 and later had the newer geometry.

The early model 26 and 27 pistols were the first to incorporate finger grooves in the front strap of the grip; however, these were not checkered like those that came before and after. It may be easiest to regard the models 26-28 with the smooth front strap as generation 2 because they are like the proto type for the generation 3 changes and appeared prior to the addition of the accessory rail that fully defines generation 3 guns. These first subcompact pistols incorporated the “thumb rest” feature at the top of the grip so they could be legally imported into the U.S. market. On the other hand, the large frame subcompact pistols, models 29 and 30 (chambered in 10mm Auto and .45 ACP respectively) were always produced with checkered finger grooves on the front strap and their ultimate upgrade to having an accessory rail occurred much later so it may be best to classify all of these in generation 3.

Generation 3 Glock Features

Generation 3 Glocks incorporated all of the feature changes listed above and changed very little in the years to come. A few early models of the .357 SIG pistols were made with finger grooves and no accessory rail (a.k.a. “generation 2.5”) but these can be considered rare. Additional models added after the switch to generation 3 included the 29 (10mm), 30 (.45 ACP), 31-33 (.357 SIG), 34 (9mm), 35 (.40 S&W), and the slim frame model 36 which was unique in that it was a .45 ACP pistol with the slide dimensions of the 9mm and a single stack frame that was even thinner! The models 37-39 were later introduced in the .45 GAP cartridge. These guns used the standard 9mm sized frame with a wider slide similar to the 10mm/.45 ACP models.

Towards the later years of the 3rd generation, some special versions of existing models were introduced along side the standard models. Versions of several models described as having a Rich Texture Finish (RTF) were made that incorporated a distinct texture on all surfaces of the grip and cosmetically unique slide serrations. These were not commercially successful and subsequently produced in smaller numbers.

Some of the larger 10mm/.45 ACP models were made with “Short Frames” (SF) that had a grip back strap/palm swell that was reduced in size. These models arrived around the same time as the addition of the accessory rail on the subcompact versions (29/30) and were marked on the right side of the frame above the trigger guard with a short cartouche bearing an “SF” embossed on the smooth polymer.

One smaller subset of these models is the Glock 21 SF with the larger 1913 rail built into the frame instead of the usual single notch accessory rail. These were made in anticipation of design features requested for a new U.S. Army service pistol competition. This particular model was made with a new ambidextrous magazine release that was very different from the previous designs. This system captured the magazine with a thin paddle on the forward interior of the magazine well and would not function with older magazine designs. For this reason, all subsequent magazines were made with this additional forward cutout, although the military competition never happened and these design features have not been repeated on subsequent models.

Around the time of the SF models, the serial numbers on Glock frames dropped the “US” suffix and all slide, frame, and barrel numbers were identical. This occurred before the arrival of the 4th generation designs or the U.S. made Glock pistols that appear to all use the longer four letter plus three number serial number structure. At present, both 3rd and 4th generation pistols are being made in the U.S. and Austria. The only technical difference between the two seems to be in the metal finish – the Tennifer process used in Austria has been replaced by a Melonite process for U.S. made handguns. It remains to be seen if this difference will distinguish the two products in the open market.

With the growing popularity of modern “sport utility” rifles comes increased public awareness and scrutiny. Among most firearm enthusiasts, a slung AR-15 is no cause for concern but there are numerous reasons to keep a low profile when traveling with such arms among the general public. An ordinary rifle case not only draws attention but does not aid the carrier in transporting a rifle long distances or maneuvering into a position requiring agility or both hands. Two products available to subtly transport such items are the 5.11 Tactical COVRT M4 Gun Bag and the Noveske Discreet Backpack available from First Spear, LLC. Each has different capabilities and their advantages and disadvantages are summarized here.

The COVRT M4 is a bit of a hybrid between a gun case and a backpack. It has one main shoulder strap with a small offside strap for a more secure fit and a padded ventilated back. Each of the straps is reversible and has a quick release buckle. There are also two carry handles positioned for both horizontal and vertical carry and the primary compartment opens with a pair of zippers that seal three sides so the entire case can be opened wide to position the contents. The main compartment is large enough to contain a fully assembled 16-inch AR carbine with the stock collapsed and contains a muzzle pocket at the bottom and Velcro strap at the top for securing and centering the rifle. Other firearms inside the 34 inch length will also fit equally well (a 16-inch barreled lever gun for example). There are two exterior pockets, the lower is large (21 inches long, 10 inches wide) and has no interior or exterior features or dividers. The smaller upper outer pocket (12×10 inches) has exterior loops and MOLLE and Velcro attachments inside and elastic loop and buttons to secure the flap at the bottom if the contents need to be exposed.

The Noveske Discreet Backpack is shorter than the 5.11 bag and is less likely to be viewed as a gun case by observers. It has symmetrical and adjustable shoulder straps as well as a quick release sternum strap between them. A full size 16-inch AR carbine must be disassembled into upper and lower receivers to fit inside, although a host of other firearms will fit intact and ready to deploy. The back of the main compartment has numerous MOLLE attachments and movable elastic quick release mounts and a muzzle pocket for securing the rifle and components. The front of the main compartment has more MOLLE and Velcro attachments as well as a zipper towards the top revealing a full length slimmer compartment capable of holding another item the length of the main compartment (such as a second upper receiver). The bottom of the main compartment is well padded to protect the contents. On the exterior of the pack are two bottle pockets, a small square zipper compartment at the bottom with a Velcro patch outside, and a large open top mesh sided pocket with quick release straps securing it to the top of the pack. On the inside of the open top exterior compartment is another zipper compartment running the length of the flap. The Noveske pack also has a padded ventilated back and a full length section of MOLLE attachment points on each side of the outer body.

Although both items have overlapping utility, the primary advantage of the 5.11 COVRT M4 is its ability to hold a fully assembled AR carbine and other similarly sized rifles in a deployable orientation. By fully opening the main compartment zipper, the padded side walls can double as a short shooting mat provided that the contents of the outer pocket don’t cause a problem. The approximate $140 price tag is lower than the Noveske backpack that goes for about $200. The most obvious disadvantage is the size and shape which does not resemble an ordinary backpack or other sports equipment – it looks more like a case for carrying a skateboard. Lastly, the lack of features or compartments in the large lower outer pocket tends to limit its utility.

The Noveske Discreet Backpack is more subtle because it looks more like an ordinary backpack than anything else. It has more custom features and a greater load capacity than the 5.11 bag. The interior compartment is versatile enough to hold both the upper and lower receivers of a 16-inch AR carbine securely or a number of other smaller rifles and shotguns in a deployable orientation. The lack of a waist belt or internal frame limits the comfort with a heavy load or long distance of travel.

Both items are offered in two color schemes and are of high quality construction and materials. Each has a design that is well thought out and functional for their respective tasks. They can be ordered on-line through the following web links:

www.511tactical.com/All-Products/Bags-Backpacks/COVRT/COVRT-M4.html

www.first-spear.com/product.php?productid=17613&cat=300&page=1

Background Information Muzzle flash occurs when partial combustion products from the propellant emerge from the muzzle of a firearm and ignite in the atmosphere. The combustible products consist of hydrogen and carbon monoxide from the deflagration of the fuel-rich nitrocellulose propellant along with partially consumed propellant particles. These gases and particles are expelled from the muzzle at high temperatures and pressure. Like any fuel, they must reach a satisfactory air-to-fuel ratio before they can be ignited. Flash suppressors interfere with this mixing process. Some additional factors dictating the presence or absence of muzzle flash and its character include barrel length, propellant type and chemical composition, the effectiveness of any flash retardants in the propellant, flame temperature, muzzle pressure, gas volume generated by the propellant, exhaust gas products and by-products and adequate mixing of these products with air. This mixing usually takes some time and distance. Consequently, photographs of muzzle flash from most small arms often show a non-luminous space between the fireball and the muzzle. Any small amount of flame present in or at the muzzle is likely due to the primer.

The size, character and color of muzzle flash can vary greatly ranging from virtually no visible light in front of the muzzle to a very large fireball. Color can vary from a dull to bright red, yellow-orange to yellow to nearly white with a slight lavender hue. The presence of muzzle flash is, of course, a serious problem in firearms intended for military and law enforcement.

Over the last 50 years, manufacturers of military firearms such as the M14, AR-15 and other similar rifles have developed muzzle attachments that attempt to reduce or even obviate muzzle flash. Flash suppressants in the propellant are also an important constituent of nearly all military and law enforcement ammunition. Nearly 20 chemical additives have been listed in the literature as flash suppressants. The most common are potassium sulfate, potassium nitrate and potassium chloride in amounts up to about 2% but the presence of a flash suppressant is seldom if ever noted on canister propellants or, for that matter, on boxes of commercial ammunition.

Test-Documentation Procedures

The U.S. military under the U.S. Army Test and Evaluation Command has a Test Operations Procedure (TOP) for evaluating and measuring muzzle flash for a variety of small arms and larger weapons systems. TOP 3-2-045 (December 1983) contains a rather archaic procedure calling for the open shutter cumulative recording of twenty (20) shots with a 4×5 film camera positioned 4 to 5 feet out from the muzzle of the test firearm. A particular film speed and f-stop are also described. The testing is, of course, to be carried out in darkness. Strangely, no mention is made of the ammunition to be used or its composition or propensity to produce a muzzle flash with or without a flash suppressor attached to the firearm. This procedure not only seems awkward in the extreme but also self-defeating if one wants a realistic view of muzzle flash and some idea of its shot-to-shot consistency and reproducibility.

Contemporary digital cameras and a few chosen selections for f-stop and ISO settings comparable to those described here, along with a standoff distance on the order of 3 to 4 feet, provide the reader given to scientific testing a means for documenting and comparing muzzle flash.

While not absolutely necessary, a mechanical gun rest of some sort makes a very desirable addition to any set up since it keeps the rifle at the same standoff distance from the camera and area of interest immediately in front of the muzzle centered in the camera’s view. An outdoor location free of ambient light except for a full moon was chosen for the majority of this work. Alternatively, a small camp light placed on the ground and behind the camera will provide sufficient working light and will not interfere with the photographic process.

The authors used a Nikon D100 digital camera for the tests illustrated in this article but most any camera with a bulb setting or a built-in timer that will hold the shutter open for at least 4 to 5 seconds will accomplish the same end. If the bulb setting is to be used, a cable release will also be necessary and the cameraman will have to count off 4 or 5 seconds of exposure. The camera was positioned on a sturdy tripod so that it viewed the test rifle in profile from a distance of 4 feet with the test gun at the right edge of the frame. The remainder of the frame was reserved for any muzzle flash produced by the test shot.

The exposure time was set at 4 seconds, with Auto White Balance, an ISO setting of 400 and an aperture of f/5.6. With a little practice, this time interval allows for a strobe to be flashed followed by the discharge of the test rifle. A hand-held strobe was held near the camera and at such a position so as to properly ‘burn-in’ the pre-discharge image of the rifle. The rifle was then fired and any muzzle flash is added to the previous image. The immediate playback on the rear screen of the digital camera also allowed for the confirmation of a suitable image. A minimum of three shots with each rifle/flash suppressor/ammunition combination was carried out as a test and documentation of reproducibility.

It is important to realize that in this method all visible light is captured and integrated into the final image. The duration of a muzzle flash is on the order of 0.01 to 0.03 seconds and even less in some cases whereas the average duration of an involuntary eye blink is about 0.1 to 0.4 seconds. This means that it is possible that an eye witness looking directly towards a nighttime gunshot will not see the muzzle flash even though other witnesses see it and subsequent testing shows that the gun-ammunition combination consistently produces a large, bright muzzle flash.

Firearms

The first series of tests employed the following firearms:

• Olympic Arms MFR – 20-in. barrel
• Bushmaster XM15E2S – 14.5-in. barrel
• LAR15 Rock River – 7-in. barrel

All three of these firearms possessed a 1 in 9-inch twist

Ammunition

Two sources of .223Rem./5.56mm ammunition loaded with 55-gr FMJ-BT bullets were used in these tests. These consisted of Norinco .223Rem ammunition (Chinese manufacture – no lot number – headstamps “C J 8”) and Federal brand XM193 ammunition bearing the Lake City headstamp “LC 07”.

Flash Suppressors

The flash suppressors tested were as follows:

• A1
• A2
• Phantom A1
• Phantom A2
• Vortex
• Early Vortex

Test Considerations and Results

The essence of the Scientific Method in any testing protocol is to only change one variable at a time. The combined use of six flash suppressors and three barrel lengths allows a number of comparisons to be made. For example, one can isolate barrel length and ammunition (hold barrel length and ammunition constant) and study the effect of the six flash suppressors as well as the total absence of a flash suppressor. Alternatively, the effect of barrel length can be isolated by holding ammunition and flash suppressor constant. Finally, any difference due to the ammunition used in this study can be assessed by inter-comparing the appearance of any muzzle flash where the ammunition is the only variable.

Observations and Interim Summary – Phase 1

• 1. With only a few exceptions, muzzle flash, when present, was consistent and reproducible in appearance and size for each ammunition-barrel length-suppressor combination.
• 2. The muzzle flashes with both sources of ammunition were consistently yellow-orange in color. They invariably possessed a non-luminescent space between the muzzle and the actual fireball.
• 3. The Federal ammunition appears to contain a more effective flash suppressant than the Norinco ammunition (based on the results of the 20-inch rifle without a flash suppressor).
• 4. As expected, barrel length played an important role in the presence or absence of muzzle flash. The longer the barrel the less the muzzle flash, keeping the other variables of ammunition and flash suppressor constant.
• 5. Of the six flash suppressors employed in this study, the Vortex units far exceeded all other makes and models in their ability to suppress muzzle flash.
• 6. This technique or some simple modification of it will allow the reader to record and study muzzle flash. For those involved in ammunition selection, the inclusion of a scale at the gun position will allow quantitative measures of muzzle flash and criteria to be established for large quantity ammunition purchases. It also provides a means to study and compare the effectiveness of other existing or future flash suppressors.

Results and Observations According to Barrel Length

• 7. The Federal ammunition only produced a significant muzzle flash in 1 out of 3 shots with the 20-inch Olympic rifle without a flash suppressor. All of the flash suppressors were effective with this rifle and ammunition combination.
• 8. The Norinco ammunition produced a large muzzle flash with all 3 shots with the 20-inch Olympic rifle when this rifle lacked a flash suppressor. All of the flash suppressors were effective with this rifle and ammunition combination.
• 9. The Federal ammunition produced a large muzzle flash for all 3 shots with the 14.5-in. Bushmaster rifle without a flash suppressor. All of the flash suppressors were effective with this rifle and ammunition combination with the exception of the A2 suppressor that failed to totally suppress the muzzle flash for one of the three shots.
• 10. The Norinco ammunition produced a large muzzle flash with all 3 shots with this rifle when it lacked a flash suppressor. All of the flash suppressors were effective with this rifle and ammunition combination.
• 11. The Federal ammunition produced a large muzzle flash for all 3 shots with the 7-in. LAR15 rifle without a flash suppressor. The A1, A2 and Phantom A1 flash suppressors were only slightly effective with this rifle and ammunition combination. The Phantom A2 was partially successful in that it suppressed the flash in 2 out of 3 shots. Both Vortex suppressors were completely effective in suppressing muzzle flash with this rifle-ammunition combination.
• 12. The Norinco ammunition produced a large muzzle flash with all 3 shots with this rifle when it lacked a flash suppressor. The A1 and Phantom A1 were only partially successful in reducing muzzle flash. The A2 flash suppressor prevented 2 out of 3 flashes and the Phantom A2 only prevented 1 out of 3 flashes. Both Vortex flash suppressors were completely effective with this rifle and ammunition combination.

Phase 2 Tests

The ‘C J 93’ Norinco ammunition was used in combination with a Stag Arms 18-inch AR-15 to evaluate the flash suppressing capabilities of the 3-prong flash suppressor that came as original equipment on very early M16s. These results were compared to the current A1 “birdcage” flash suppressor and two types of Vortex suppressors. These tests were carried out in Forensic Science Service’s range using a black drop cloth behind the muzzle area of the rifle. A CED chronograph with infrared detectors was used to record the velocity values of each shot measured 10 feet downrange. The camera-to-muzzle distance for these tests was 3.5 feet and the aperture changed to f/6.3 due to the shorter standoff distance.

The two types of Vortex flash suppressors totally negated any muzzle flash whereas the 3-prong and A1 suppressors were reasonably effective, allowing only a small amount of flash to occur.

Summary

This work provides a method and some photographic parameters that will allow the reader to carry out and document muzzle flash tests. Some representative examples of muzzle flash, muzzle flash suppressors and muzzle flash suppression by these devices have been provided in the numerous figures contained in this article.

Special thanks are extended to David Fisher of Fisher Enterprises, Tempe, AZ for his assistance and the use of his Bushmaster XM15E2S.