Dominican Republic, April–June 1965 

On June 6, 1965, Col. Francisco Alberto Caamaño Deñó’s rebel forces suspended negotiations and moved to break free from the noose around their strongholds within Ciudad Nueva. Nine days later, at 0750 hours, they launched the most violent attack against U.S. and the Inter-American Force’s positions. “By 0915hrs they were directing continuous fire at American positions, and at noon they assaulted Brazilian positions with a coordinated use of mortars, bazookas, and tanks.”1 Spearheading the offensive was a handful of captured armored vehicles, which faced Brazilian and U.S. jeep-mounted 106mm recoilless rifles (RRs). U.S. paratroopers used a 106mm RR to knock out an L60 light tank, stalling the attack. It was the bloodiest battle of the intervention, with the rebels suffering a sound defeat and the lost 56 square blocks of territory. By the time it was over, there were between 500 regulars and 325 police officers killed on the Loyalists’ side, and 600 regulars, hundreds of armed civilians and five light tanks destroyed on the Constitutionalists’ side. For its part, the U.S. was to suffer 10 Marines and 13 paratroopers killed and 283 wounded, most of them casualties of sniper fire. 

As it happened, in early 1965 the Dominican Republic sank in a civil war between Loyalists and Constitutionalists, so the U.S. intervened to prevent another Cuba. The U.S. stability operation, later code-named “Powerpack,” took place in three phases between April 30 and May 3, 1965. The plan consisted of landing at San Isidro Airfield (about 10 miles east of Santo Domingo) then advancing 8 miles west to the Ozama River and finally establishing a line of communications to link the airfield with the International Security Zone (INSZ) around the U.S. Embassy thereby separating the two factions. The U.S. acted unilaterally and was nominally neutral, but it backed the Loyalists; however, the intervention took an international turn when the Organization of American States (OAS) authorized the formation of the Fuerza Interamericana de Paz (FIP / IAPF) on May 23, 1965. The FIP was under the command of Brazilian General Hugo Penasco Alvim, heading an 1,130-strong Brazilian Battalion and a Fraternity Battalion with a Brazilian Marine Company, and three other infantry companies from Honduras (250), Paraguay (178) and Nicaragua (164), plus a 25-strong police squad from Costa Rica. However, the U.S. continued to provide the bulk of the FIP, with elements from the 1st Brigade/82nd Airborne Division, 16th Support Group, 7th Special Forces Group and assorted U.S. Air Force personnel.2

The FIP started deployment on May 24, but before that, the Marines had come ashore in late April with all their tools of the trade, including the M50 Ontos, an ugly light tank-destroyer equipped with six M40 RRs. In addition, each Marine company had a section of 106mm RRs to bolster their firepower. Facing them were the Constitutionalists, led by Caamaño Deñó, with 1,500 soldiers with five light tanks and one gunboat, plus another 5,000 armed civilians. The Loyalists, on the other hand, had the CEFA, the Armed Forces Training Center, under general Elías Wessin y Wessin, at San Isidro barracks, collocated with the 19th of November air base. This meant some 4,000 soldiers and the General de Brigada Felipe Ciprian Armored Battalion, consisting of four armored companies, one with AMX-13 light tanks, another with the Scania L60 truck, one with Lynx armored cars and one more with mechanized infantry with halftracks. Soon after the U.S. Marines landed, the Constitutionalists’ armored forces clashed with an armored column, resulting in a Marine M50 quickly destroying an L60 light tank but also losing an M50 in the fire exchange. Another M50 is credited with blowing the turret off a rebel AMX-13, while another light tank was destroyed by an M48 Patton tank. It is not clear if the AMX-13 with the turret blown off was later recovered, but Captain Manuel Antonio Cuervo Gómez and mechanical engineer Lazaro Rosado developed the MAC-LR, which matched one AMX-13 chassis with an HS630 triple 20mm gun. The MAC-LR was also reported destroyed in those early clashes of April 1965.

After these skirmishes, fighting was largely restricted to dealing with the occasional sniper fire, to which U.S. troops discovered that their 106-RRs were excellent anti-sniper weapons. They also used a single 106mm round to sink a boat that shelled their position with mortar fire. The U.S. retired its M40A1 recoilless rifles in favor of guided missiles starting in 1970, but 54 years after the skirmishes in the Dominican Republic, the 106mm-RR continues to be the main anti-tank and fire support weapon used by the Mexican and many Central and South American militaries. Those manufactured in Spain received the denomination “CSR-106” or “CSR CETME” 105mm while those built in Israel were called “M70s.”

Latin America’s M40A1 RR

Mexico has about 102 CSR-106s still in use, distributed among Recoilless Rifle Groups, comprising the First at San Juan Teotihuacan, the Second at Queretaro, the Third at Puebla, the Fourth at Sarabia, the Fifth and Sixth at 1-A Military Camp, Mexico D.F., the Seventh at San Miguel de los Jagüeyes and the Eighth at Chicoasen. The first M40A1 examples arrived in the early 1970s from Watervliet Arsenal (NY), followed by Spain’s Santa Barbara models in the 1980s, and then again from the U.S. in excess in the 1990s. The Mexican Army mounted its M40 RRs on Willys M38A1C, or its local equivalent the VAM J-3M, while the Navy mounted some of them on Jeep CJ-7s. Mexico received hundreds of M151s and M825s (together with numbers of M40A1s) in the early 1990s from excess stocks and U.S. pre-positioned warehouses. By 1994 Mexico had also incorporated thousands of Humvees, and eventually the M825 MUTTs (Military Utility Tactical Trucks) were replaced with M1038A1 troop carrier models. These RRs’ carriers were slightly modified with short pedestals to raise the M79 tripod high enough for the M40A1 tube to clear over the soft-top cabin, so the windshield could remain raised for travel and shooting. In 2014, Mexico purchased another 3,335 Humvee M1100 series vehicles, to include M1152 variants. This is an improved cargo/troop transport version with an integrated armor protection;3 modified as TTP (troop transport protected), and with modifications similar to the M1038A1 RR, an M1152A1 TTP-RR would have made for an expedient and more efficient armored support vehicle.

In Central America, Guatemala received a few U.S. examples, but ended up acquiring more than 56 M40A1 CSR-106s from Spain along with ECia 120mm mortars. In 1998, El Salvador organized the “AT Battalion” within the Cavalry Regiment, equipped with 18 AIL M-240 Recce Storm Jeeps and 18 M-240 Anti-Tank models. By 2019, only 12 operational CSR-106s were available, all mounted on repowered M-240 AIL jeeps. In 1977, Honduras obtained 16 160mm M66 mortars together with the first nine 106mm M70 RRs4 from Israel, and eventually amassed some 80 M40A1s to include U.S. and Spanish models. There were eight M70s on RBY-MK1 light armored vehicles, while others were mounted on M606A2 Jeeps, and Israeli Matmar Industries’ Jeep CJ-5 or CJ-6 Tolar versions.5 Honduras also adopted the Israeli practice of providing an anti-tank squad to each infantry battalion, and each brigade received an anti-tank company. Some 50 remain, mainly mounted on M825 or M998 vehicles.

In 1994, the Colombian Army restored 40 M3A1 Scout Cars, replacing the gas engines for diesels and mounting the M40A1 in the open bed. Within a decade, the Scout Cars RRs had been retired and replaced with M462 Abir Portee light trucks. The Portee was a dedicated weapon platform developed by AIL and fitted with ammunition racks, an additional fire extinguisher, equipment for the recoilless rifle and a rack at the rear for additional jerry cans, while the Colombians added some armor. Although local sources indicate that there are 75 M40A1s still operational, officially there are 63 of them.6 As a side note, Colombia has been the recipient of hundreds of Humvees, mostly M998s and M1097s, and the maintenance battalion (BAMAN) has reconstructed at least three of them to Buffalo VLBB standards. These are upgraded HMMWVs with an armored capsule that brings MRAP Level 1 protection for the crew. One of the capsule’s designs fits the two-cabin M1097 cargo variant, which, with further modifications as an RR carrier, would be an ideal fire support platform and an ideal replacement for the Abir Portee. 

The ground version of the M40 is mounted on an M79 “wheelbarrow” tripod, with a single front wheel and two solid legs while the M40A4 uses a conventional 3-leg M27 tripod. Either way, the weapon is not easily emplaced by hand. As result, Norway mounted its M40 on a two-wheel carriage and called it the Rekylfri Kanon 106mm M40. Austria built its own trailer and named it 10.6 cm rPAK (also rPak-66), and in its original form, the M40 was mounted on a simple two-wheel carriage towed 106mm RR M79 trailer. In August 2019, the Venezuelan automobile industry (ENSOVEN) developed a rolling platform for the weapon. It is similar in shape to the U.S. Marine M274, but unlike the Mule, the platform has two wheels and is not self-propelled. A number of Venezuelan RRs have been mounted on the Tiuna 106, a shortened version of the UR-53AR50 light truck, similar in design to the South Korean KM424 106mm recoilless rifle carrier, and developed by CENARECA (military auto industry). The Venezuelan Naval Weapons and Electronics Directorate (DAE) recovered four M40A1s in June 2016 for the 22nd Mariscal Antonio Jose de Sucre Marine Battalion, and by September 2019, the Military Industry complex (CAVIM) had refurbished the remaining 171 M40A1s. The weapons then were tested by the 12th Caribes Brigade before redistribution. 

Brazil has been a large user of the M40A1, retaining some 160 pieces that are operational today. The M40A1 is used by Bolivia, and there are some 24 with Ecuador. Uruguay has 69 M40A1s in use, some of them mounted on OT-64C/OT-93 APCs, and has deployed them with their forces serving with MONUC. In 2013, it was reported that Peru had deployed 36 M40A1s along the southern border with Chile.7 At one-point, Chile deployed some 500 M40A1/ CSR-106s. In 1978, when Chile’s Beagle Conflict with Argentina became acute, the No. 14 “Caupolicán” Infantry Regiment was the southernmost military unit of the Chilean Army facing Argentinean forces. It was the sole unit permanently based in Tierra del Fuego, so reinforcements came from the No. 10 “Pudeto” Infantry Regiment and from the “Cochrane” Marine Corps detachment. The M40A1 was the most important Chilean anti-tank weapon against the Argentineans, so these were supplied in quantities. The No. 145 regiment became the Reinforced Regiment No. 11 “Caupolican” on January 13, 2003, having as its headquarters El Porvenir. Currently, these regiments have become known as motorized detachments (DM), and the No. 11 DM still comprises one RR anti-tank company, together with the No. 11 “Caupolicán” Infantry Battalion, and the No. 13 “Tierra del Fuego” Artillery Group. Today, Chile has some 213 M40A1 RCLs in inventory, but only a handful are in service with the mentioned anti-tank company and the 106mm “Karut” Anti-tank Company, a unit subordinated to the No. 14 “Aysén” Reinforced Regiment based in the city of Coyhaique, under the IV Army Division. Some of the Chilean models have been upgraded with Simrad LP101 locators, computerized laser sights (CLASS) and MVS-800 night-vision systems, which allow accurate shots between 1200m and more than 2000m. The M40A1s are mounted on Jeep M-240 Storms, a multi-mission vehicle based on the Jeep Wrangler YJ and the CJ-6/CJ-8 wheelbase, built by the Israeli AIL. The M40 is used by conscribed soldiers, and familiarization is provided at “Las Bandurrias” training camp. The troops practice tactical use and combat doctrine. 

Paradise Was Hell,8 1980-1993

The offensive started with some 3,000 FMLN (Frente Farabundo Marti de Liberación Nacional) guerrillas descending from the mountains to San Salvador, occupying the neighborhoods of Mejicanos, Ciudad Delgado, Soyapango and San Jacinto, and then taking positions in the upper-class neighborhoods of San Benito, Maquilishuat, Lomas Verdes and Escalón. They also attacked the eastern cities of Zacatecoluca, San Miguel and Usulután. In their wake they overran the 1st Infantry Brigade’s positions, pushing the troops inside the Capital.9 Soon after the initial firefights, there were skirmishes in the north, east, and to a lesser extent, west of the Capital, and within 48 hours, San Salvador was a battlefield. Meanwhile, at El Paraíso Camp, in Chalatenango,10 everything was quiet—too quiet … .

El Paraiso Army Camp was one of the most besieged military garrisons in the country. The camp came into intensive fire in January 1981, when elements of the “Modesto Ramírez” guerrilla front, part of the FMLN, assaulted it and besieged the zone. In the early hours of December 30, 1983, 25 elements of the Selected Special Forces (FES), led by Dimas Rodríguez, had cleared a path through the trenches and mine fields of El Paraiso Camp with Bangalore torpedoes. Another 150 fighters of the X-21 battalion of the Popular Liberation Forces (FPL), who were hidden along the outer fence, charged through the openings, occupying and destroying the base. The attack had been executed perfectly, with the FPL’s K-93 battalion deployed west, occupying positions in the area of the Troncal del Norte highway, and attacked units at nearby El Refugio, El Barrancon in La Reina and the Colima bridge to block relief forces. The FPL’s SA-7 battalion besieged an infantry company stationed at the town of El Paraiso, setting up containments along the road to Santa Rita while the SS-20 battalion set siege to Military Detachment 1 in the city of Chalatenango. The guerrillas occupied the base for 2 days, ironically surrounded by companies from the Atlacatl and the Paratrooper battalions. As they threatened to kill the survivors, a compromise allowed them to leave on a convoy of 17 trucks and buses.

On March 31, 1987, guerrillas penetrated the perimeter once again,11 killing 64 Salvadoran soldiers and wounding 79. Their attack also killed SFC Gregory A. Fronius, an element of the 3rd Battalion, 7th SFG (A). El Paraiso was subjected to another attack in March 1988, and on September 13, 1988, another attack to the base was repelled by Army troops and U.S. advisors, Major James Parker, SSG Michael Roth, Captain Gilberto Aguiar, SFC Mario Orozco Torres and 1st Lt. Byron Castleman.12 In one of those assaults, the rebels decimated the crew of an M40A1 recoilless rifle (RR), seizing it but then failing to find the trigger to fire it against Army positions, allowing the soldiers to retake the piece. Another attack had taken place in September 1989, so upon the news of the offensive in San Salvador in November of that year, the garrison commander, Colonel Ciro López Roque cancelled all leave, while Colonel Gilbert Cáceres, S3 Officer, ordered a defensive posture. 

El Salvador, November 12, 198913

In the darkness of the early morning of November 12, 1989, on one of the defensive hills, Lieutenant Geovanni Hidalgo, Battalion Azmitía/2nd Company commander, kept watch along with a renewed crew of that same 106mm recoilless rifle momentarily lost to the enemy in a previous fight. Lt. Hidalgo watched the top of the mountain in front of him; he was aware that there was a bunker manned by local Special Forces at the crest and that previous attacks originated from that mountain just outside the base perimeter. Expecting any movement to come from the same place, Hidalgo decided to test fields of fire and calculated a point midway up the hill. After calling and checking with the nearby patrols, and lacking 12.7mm ammunition to use in the recoilless rifle’s aiming device, he, along with the gunner, simply measured the distance by sight. Hidalgo then ordered the crew to open fire. With orders to be silent, the gunner hesitated, but Hidalgo repeated, “I am telling you to shoot.” The gunner responded immediately and fired. The quick gunner’s reaction and the backblast cached the lieutenant by surprise, blinding him. While he wiped his eyes trying to recover, the radio came alive. Initially, it was feared that the round hit a nearby patrol but then they realized that the officer on the other side was asking for additional fire since the patrol had detected movement at the site of impact. Hidalgo then ordered another shot as he was recovering from his blindness; the gun crew was ahead of the order and fired, catching Hidalgo off-guard again and blinding him one more time.14 The crew and officer had forgotten that the 105mm projectile follows a curved trajectory, and instead of the side, the rounds were smashing at the foot of the mountain. The first round landed on top of the guerrilla concentration. To everyone’s surprise, as the second round landed, the base of the hill lit up. The round had smashed right on top of the guerrillas’ ammo and explosives, causing a catastrophic reaction at the point of impact. The survivors attempted suppressive fire against the recoilless gun position, but that ended quickly. At day light, the troops found the disabled mortars, traces of blood and signs of casualties.15 

From that point-on, all continued to be really quiet at the 4th Brigade while hell rained on San Salvador, where the fight was house to house. As elements of the 1st and 4th Paratrooper Squadrons broke the siege around Ilopango Air Base, they were joined by elements of the Arce Reaction Battalion pushing against a Soyapango suburb, where they engaged some 1,500 rebels of the PRTC and RN factions. As the troops advanced on rebel strongholds, the fight centered around the neighborhoods of Santos-I, Las Brisas and Reparto Guadalupe. The guerrillas finally relinquished their dug-in positions on the 16th, and were in full retreat on the 17th, with the paratroopers on their heels. The troops dragged an M40A1 RR with them to the edge of Venecia and Prusia areas, where some rebels were trapped, shelling their positions and decimating their strongholds until the fight finally ended. The battle continued elsewhere in the Capital for another 2 weeks. The CSR-106 had proven its worth, disrupting the fight in El Paraíso and helping to subdue enemy positions in Soyapango. 

A Place Called “Paradise”

It is important to dispel claims that El Paraiso base in El Salvador was devised by American advisers. “Paradise” Camp, located 64km from San Salvador and 24km from the departmental capital, Chalatenango, actually took shape in 1968-1969 as an advanced Salvadoran Army depot and as a blocking strongpoint against any Honduran incursion. It gained importance after the July 1969 war between the two countries. In the mid-1970s, the Salvadoran Army reorganized and consolidated its maneuvering units, with the 1st Infantry Brigade at San Carlos Camp (cuartel/barracks) in San Salvador, comprising the 1st Regiment, the Engineer Battalion (detachment) from Zacatecoluca, and the 4th Infantry Regiment from Chalatenango. It deployed troops along the border detachments housed at El Paraíso, Chalatenango, El Refugio, Arcatao and El Guayabo Dam. 

El Paraíso Camp was located on an esplanade not very strategically located in the municipality of El Paraíso, Chalatenango. The base covered a square kilometer of flat land while its installations occupied a hollow between Loma (“hill”) El Espinal to the north and Loma Lisa to the south in Columbia. The small town of El Paraíso is approximately 1.5km (by road) to the northeast while the Guayabo is less than 2km northwest. A main entrance to the Cerrón Grande Dam is approximately 1km southeast. The development of the Camp continued until November 4, 1980, when it was established as headquarters for the 4th Infantry Brigade, and with U.S. assistance, the defensive perimeter was established with barbed wire, fortifications and night lighting, in addition to the usual mobile patrols, fixed posts and a prevention guard. The base was neither impressive nor impregnable. 

Documents captured in 1990 indicated that the guerrillas’ attacks in November 1989 pretended to overrun the Ilopango Air Base, the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 6th Infantry Brigade bases, the Engineer Detachment and the Arce and Atonal Battalion camps. Therefore, the failed attack on the 4th Brigade was diversionary in nature and was prepared by “only” about 100 rebels. Two well-placed—and lucky—105mm shots from the M40A1 were sufficient to thwart their intentions in 1989.

1. history.army.mil/html/reference/army_flag/dominican.html.
2. dsca.mil/major-arms-sales/mexico-m1152-high-mobility-multi-purpose-wheeled-vehicles-hmmwvs.
3. United States Congress, House Committee on Foreign Affairs, 1979.
4. pmulcahy.com/light_uv/israeli_luv.htm.
5. Colombia: A Country Study. Edited by Rex A. Hudson, Library of Congress (U.S.), Federal Research Division.
6. elmostrador.cl/noticias/pais/2013/07/15/los-desconocidos-preparativos-militares-en-chile-y-peru-previos-al-fallo-de-la-haya.
7. soc.mil/ARSOF_History/articles/v3n1_paraiso_page_1.html.
8. cambridge.org/core/books/the-salvador-option/guerrilla-second-final-offensive-november-1989/6562240F43C7C91E92901ABA8788AF36.
9. contrapunto.com.sv/archivo2016/cultura/literatura/romper-un-candado-asalto-al-cuartel-el-paraiso-1983. cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90- 00965R000200730001-2.pdf.
10. cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90-00965R000200730001-2.pdf.
11. fas.org/irp/agency/dod/socom/2007history.pdf.
12. From LA F.A.E.S. a Fierro y Machete: Recopilación de Detalles Históricos de las Fuerzas de Tierra de El Salvador, draft presented to the Salvadoran Ministry of Culture, July 2019.
13. Testimony provided by Geovanni Hidalgo.
14. From LAF.A.E.S.aFierroyMachete:RecopilacióndeDetallesHistóricosdelasFuerzasdeTierradeElSalvador, draft presented to the Salvadoran Ministry of Culture, July 2019.

In July 2008, the Mexican navy seized a 33-foot submarine transporting cocaine off its southern coast, some 125 miles off Puerto de Salina Cruz, Oaxaca. A year later, the U.S. Coast Guard and Mexican Navy intercepted another 8 tons of pot off the Baja California coast. According to the USCG, a C-130 Hercules patrol aircraft from Air Station Sacramento, Calif., detected the smugglers about 60 miles west of Isla Cedros. The U.S. Coast Guard dispatched the Cutter Aspen, while the Mexican Navy dispatched a patrol boat, intercepting the 16,588 pounds of marijuana as indicated, with an estimated $15 million value. These are just a couple of the many missions undertaken by the Mexican Naval forces in the drug war. The Mexican Maritime forces have developed close ties with U.S. military and anti-narcotics agencies. Not only the Navy and Marines have received U.S. training, but also receive intelligence on the whereabouts of the enemy.

It was President Felipe Calderon (2006-2012) who gave to the Navy the task of fighting the country’s drug cartels head-on and to impose public order and safety. The Mexican Navy, in particular, responded to the call with great enthusiasm and immediate action; the U.S. assisted in transforming the service into a viable force, providing it with intelligence and training to bolster its capabilities. In the exchange, both military services benefited of new experiences, equipment and training.

Tools of the trade

The Marines are now highly mobile and lightly armed, and they are confronted by well-armed and protected capos. If the need arises, the Marines can call for fire support, mostly provided by either the M1 or the Cazador (Hunter) 60mm mortars. The first one weighs 19.0 kg (41.8 lbs.) and has a range of 1,200 m. The second weighs the same as the M1, but has a range of 1,800 m. The Brandt M-29 provides support in a higher caliber (81mm) and a range of 3,800 m. The Marines have adopted the RPG-7 and RPG-75 anti-tank portable weapons. The RPG-75 is a 68mm model weighing 3.2 kg (15 lbs.), and having a range of 300 m. This RPG-75 is a portable single shot (LAWW-style) anti-tank weapon developed in Czechoslovakia in the 1970s.

More anti-tank and anti-bunker support comes from Israeli-made B 300 RCL, in 82mm caliber. The weapon weighs between 3.1 and 8.2 kg (6.8 – 18.0 lbs.), having a range of 650 m. Most recently, the Marines have organized two field artillery groups with M-56 Oto Melara howitzers. These are 105mm models with a combat range of 11,270 m. Between the latest materials received figure the PVS-14 NVG and the Sentinel AN/MPQ64 radar.

For point air defense, the Marines use the 9M39 Igla MANPAD. Although single launchers have been observed, the Mexicans appear to prefer the Djigit twin-round launcher, which weighs 128 kg with two 9M39 missiles ready to launch. The system comes with the Mowgli-2 night sight, and it has been observed in Ural and Unimog trucks. The system is also likely to be used in naval vessels. The 9M39 missile uses the cooled Lomo 9E410 dual-band seeker, and weighs 10.6 kg (with a 1.17 kg warhead). It has a maximum range of 5,200 meters and a maximum altitude of 11,500 ft. The Djigit can be installed in small combatants as well.

The M2 machine gun is used in ground and naval mounts, being highly effective against any type of target. This weapon is manufactured by General Dynamics and U.S. Ordnance in the U.S. Naval helicopters have been equipped with the FN-Herstal Mag-58, usually in the door gunner position; the FN-Herstal M3M, in the 12.7mm caliber, is also seen with the door gunners, and more recently, the Marines have received Dillon Aero M134D models. In 2011, the government expected to invest $40,232,136 in 216 machine guns to equip its new combat helicopters (UH-60M and EC-725). Much speculation centered on acquisition of additional Gau-19/A MGs, used already on MDH MD-902 models. The GECAL 50 is an electrically driven Gatling gun firing the 12.7x99mm ammo, ideal for installation on helicopters, ground and naval mounts.

The Spanish CETME Ameli (for ametralladora ligera) is also used on light vehicles and small boats, and more recently a few M60E4 models have been observed in use. Most interesting in the hands of the Mexican sailors are the Oerlikon 20mm in IV-type gun mounts placed on towed platforms for ground/AD use. The gun weighs 522 kg (1,150 lbs.), having a cadence of 450 rpm. The Oerlikon 20mm/70 has a range of some 3,450 yards (3,154 m), with a ceiling range of some 10,000 feet (3,048 m), but manually aimed weapons would reach some 1,000 yards (910 m), and on the Mk IV mount the gun can be depressed to -5 and elevated to +87 degrees. These guns are mounted in many patrol vessels, and several of them were also placed on M561 Gamma Goats. The Navy has received a number of Mk 67 and Mk 68 naval guns as well. The gun is an Mk 16 Mod 4 and Mod 5 in 20mm caliber, secured in a Mk 67 Mod 0 or Mk 68 Mod 0 gun mount. The Mk 67 holds 385-ready rounds and the Mk 68 holds two boxes with 200-ready rounds each. The gun has been rated as difficult to maintain in the U.S. and completely discarded from service. It is not known how it is faring in Mexico, but several have been observed on M561 Gamma Goat, and these are now being mounted on Chevy Rams pickups. The Mark 67 weighs 475 lbs. while the Mark 68 weights 775 lbs. The Mark 67 allows for an arc of -30 and +75 degrees while the Mark 68 allows for -45 to +70 degrees. The ammo type fired by the Mk 16 is the 20 x 110 mm (rimless type), firing M90 Series, HEI and APT up to 2,000 yards (1,830 m). The Mk67/Mk68 system was widely used in Vietnam and the following years until replaced by the 25mm.

Amphibious Reaction Forces

During Vicente Fox’s administration, the Naval Infantry fielded 11,812 Marines. These were distributed among two Amphibious Reaction Forces (FRA), comprising four Marine Groups. These forces started to reorganize and expand in 54 Marine Brigades. Effectively, between 2000 and 2006, the Mexican Navy reorganized into two Naval Forces, one based at Manzanillo, along the Pacific, and the other one at Tuxpan (Veracruz) along the Gulf and Caribbean. Each Naval Force would dispose of a Fuerza Reacción Anfibia (FRA – Amphibious Rapid Reaction Force) to undertake immediate response operations along the coast. By definition, each FRA would have had a flexible structure, with functional capabilities to undertake tasks that required rapid response, firepower, and mobility in air, sea and land operations. The FRAs accounted for 2,500 Marines, and each FRA counted with Amphibious Riflemen, Artillery and Support, Landing Assault Vehicle, and Services battalions. By the time Fox left office in 2006, the FRAs accounted for 12 Marine Battalions, and there were another 5 Marine Brigades. The arrival of the Calderon Administration signified a new reorganization and new role for the Navy and the arrival of an Enrique Peña Nieto as president in 2006 will mark even a new direction for the Navy and the Marines.

The arrival of Peña Nieto’s administration in 2012 found the 1st Naval Region deploying Marine Battalions in the Districts of Ciudad Madero (Tamaulipas) and Veracruz (2 battalions) and the naval sectors of Coatzacoalcos (Veracruz), Matamoros (Tamaulipas). The 3rd Region deployed troops in Ciudad del Carmen (Campeche), Frontera (Tabasco), Lerma (Campeche), and Champotan (Campeche). The 5th Region deployed Marines from Isla Mujeres, Chetumal, Cozumel (all three locations in Quintana Roo) and Yukalpeten (Yucatan). Along the Pacific, the 2nd deployed Marines from Ensenada and Puerto Cortes; the 4th Region had Marine battalions in Ensenada and La Paz in Baja California, Mazatlan and Topolopambo, (both at Sinaloa), Guaymas and Penasco, in Sonora; the 6th Region deployed Marines in Mazanillo (Coima), San Blas (Nayarit), Puerto Vallarta (Jalisco), and Lazaro Cardenas (Michoacán); the 8th Region controlled Marines operating from Acapulco (Guerrero), Salina Cruz (Oaxaca), Puerto Chiapas (Chiapas – 2 battalions) and Huatulco (Oaxaca). The Marine HQ in Mexico Federal District deployed two additional Intervention Marine Battalions, while the 24th Naval Infantry Battalion remained as part of the Presidential Guard Corps and depending directly from the General Staff Command.

Those Marines battalions (BIM) assigned to the FRA-PA in 2012 included the 2nd, (supported by the 1st Amphibious Assault Vehicle Company), the 4th (supported by the 2nd Amphibious Assault Coy), the 2nd Naval Commando Battalion, and the 2nd Naval Infantry Artillery Battalion. Additional support comes from the 3rd Amphibious Assault Vehicle Company and the Amphibious Reconnaissance Vehicle Company. The Caribbean and Gulf FRA deploys two BIMs (1st and 3rd), a Naval Commando Battalion (1er Batallon de Comandos), a Marine Artillery Battalion, a Landing and Vehicle Battalion, and a Service BIM.

There are four elite Mexican Naval outfits. The Marine Parachute Fusilier Battalion (FUSPAR) deploys 2 companies to support each of the Amphibious Reaction Forces, but remain based at Mexico DF. There are two Special Forces (FES) units comprising 10 Naval Commando Groups (for a total of some 460 operators distributed among FESGO and FESPA). More recently there is mention of the Fuerzas Especiales del Centro, which would indicate an expansion of the Spec Ops forces. While the FES commandos are the Mexican version of the U.S. Navy SEALs, the Amphibious Commandos (Comando Anfibio) refer to their version of U.S. Marine Reconnaissance, although not necessarily in the same level. A Mexican Amphibious Commando is said to attend a separate 8-week course. The ASIES, on the other hand, refers to four elite Strategic Security Installations Naval Group (Agrupamientos para la Seguridad de Instalaciones Estratégicas) in charge of security at Gulf drilling platforms, Laguna Verde, Geothermic and Hydroelectric plants and others.

At Speed On Water

It falls on SEMAR to perform littoral warfare and riverine operations in the national waterways. Before leaving office and during Navy Day in mid June 2012, the Navy incorporated two new coastal patrol vessels (ARM Tenochtitlán and ARM Teotihuacán), locally built for 9 million dollars apiece, and five Polaris (CB90) class interceptors (ARM Albireo, ARM Alnitak, ARM Mintaka, ARM Alfirk and ARM Alderamin). In addition to this 5 received in 2012, the Navy had previously received eight CB90 built in Mexico. The Polaris refers to the Mexican built variant of the Swedish designed CBH-90 interceptor, built locally for 2 million dollars apiece.

The Combat Boat 90 (CB90) is used in drug interdiction functions. These are fast military assault craft developed and built originally for the Swedish Navy by Dockstavarvet. The boat can operate in shallow draught thanks to its twin water jets. This allows operations at speeds of 40 knots (74 km/h) in shallow coastal waters. Mexico purchased 40 CB90 HMN between 1999 and 2001, and obtained a production license in 2002, building some 10 additional vessels, including modified models, up to June 2012. As the U.S. and Mexican navies developed closer ties, cross training commenced and evolved, to include Marine incorporation of tactics and strategies. Interestingly, in July 2007, the U.S. Navy chose the CB90 for its Navy Expeditionary Combat Command (NECC). The CB90 in U.S. service is denominated Riverine Command Boat (RCB). The U.S. version is a 49-ft. craft equipped with twin Scania DI16 850 hp diesel engines coupled to Rolls Royce FF410 waterjets. In U.S. service, the boat comes with SeaFLIR III IR system and Furuno Navigation, and has provisions for four individual .50 caliber mounts, and space for a stabilized remote control weapons station. In Mexican service, the boats have been observed with only one M2HB at stern on a ring that allows for a 360 degree line of fire; however, a few years back, the Mexican Navy acquired the first batch of 13 OTO Melara remote-controlled Hitrole 12.7mm remote-control turret, with a 400 round magazine. The system comes with a night and day sensor suite, laser range finder and ballistic computation for stand-alone mode. The Mexican Navy has also implemented the Sconta50 Project, which is a remote controlled turret equipped with an automatic fire director equipped with a 12.7mm machine gun. The turret provides for a stabilized platform for firing in vessels travelling up to 50 knots. The Mexican CB-90 variant appears to be the standard model, which is a little bigger than the U.S. model, at 15.9 m (52’) in length. This variant is equipped with Caterpillar CAT 3406E, Transas navigation system, HoseMcCann intercom and Marineair AC. The vessel can carry up to 21 troops. The comparison with the U.S. model can give an idea on how powerfully these boats can be armed and used. The Navy also developed the Acuario and Acuario B designs from the Polaris. Six Acuarios have been built, along with two B models. In 2005, the Navy developed the Interceptor Craft 16M (IC16M), denominated Polaris II, a shortened design similar to the US RCB, and equipped with two MAN 2842LE 410 diesel engines instead of the Caterpillar, and these are matched to two Rolls-Royce FF410 waterjets, allowing for up to 50 knots. Mexico planned for 120 CB90 in both types.

Along with the delivery of these new boats, the Calderon period (2006-2012) saw the delivery of 36 U.S. supplied SAFE Defenders, and 6 MLB, and one of the two logistical vessels being built in local yards. It is noted that the Mexican Navy has adopted a number of systems and tactics common to the U.S. counterpart for use in riverine and coastal warfare. A number of Polar Kraft boats are now used in interior waterways, along with Zodiac Mk-V and Valiant Dr boats. The small unit riverine craft (SURC) has been acquired, although it appears to be in the naval interceptor version instead of the weapons platform used by the U.S. Navy. The SURC has a rigid hull that comes with a high strength solid cell foam collar, which provides stability, redundant buoyancy, and small-arms ballistic protection. As a weapons platform, the boat can be equipped with a number of M2HB, Mk-19 and others, but in Mexican service it comes in the Navy Grey color, instead of camouflage, and it carries a single gun mount.

At Speed On Land

The Navy’s motorized fleet has been expanding, receiving a number of Kawasaki Mule 4010 Trans 4×4 ATVs, as well as Dodge RAM 1500 and 1500 ST pickup trucks. These are the workhorses of the urban patrol units. Each RAM can carry up to 10 troops, and both models are built in Mexico, with the first one carrying a V6 Magnum, 3.9 liter, gas engine rated at 125 hp and the second a V6, 3.7 liter, 215 hp model. The bigger Dodge RAM 2500 is also used, and it is also built in Mexico with a V8 Magnum, 5.9 Liter, gas engines rating 230 hp. The Ford F150 and F-250 are also used as troop transports, and are locally built using a V8, 5.4 liter, 300 hp gas engines, and V6, 4.2 Liter, 210 hp models respectively. The Chevrolet Cheyenne is built with a V8 Vortec, 5.3 Liter, and gas engine developing 285 hp or a 315 hp model. Although the pickups are modified with a simple roll-bar and other accessories, ideally, the government should take advantage of the local industry to transform the pickups into dedicated fighting vehicles. Instead of a pedestal mount, a ring would allow for a 360 degree field of fire; a better designed roll-bar could protect the vehicle all around against hits, and also function to attach armored plates, blast protection seats, and additional accessories.

For fast patrol and liaison missions, the Marines depend on the Jeep CJ7, and more recently the Mercedes Benz “G” Wagon. Numbers of Land Rover Defenders have been added to the fleet. In fact, some Land Rovers have been mentioned as armored vehicles, suggesting a protected model with space for 11 troops. The Ninjas refer to the Chenowth DPV Fast Assault Vehicles, with some 6 in use. In mid- 2011 the Navy announced the establishment of armored units equipped with the Carat Security Wolverine APCs, built in Monterrey on Ford F-450 truck chassis. These were denominated Puma B6 APC by the Mexican Naval entity. It uses a V8 diesel engine developing 390 hp, allowing for a maximum speed of 130 km/h. The Puma has already engaged in combat against armored pickup trucks used by the capos. The Navy is said to use the similar Black Scorpion model, made from the same firm, but based on the Toyota model. This material is now complementing the 30, or so, Irtish BTR 60, denominated APC 70. Reports indicate that those models in Mexican service have been modified with diesel engines, but the originals were also modified with a 12 liter, gas engines, developing 210 hp each. It is noted that the Unimog U4000 is now the standard tactical truck with the Marines, so it would be only logical the eventual acquisition of the Unimog U5000/1300 APC. In addition to the mentioned U4000, the medium load tactical truck fleet includes the Ural, locally-built Dina S400, S500, D400, D500, and Freightliner M2 35k models. There are also Chevrolet Kodiak, International 4700, Ural 4320-31, M-35 and Dina 4100.

Since November 2006, the inhabitants of El Ocotal, Nueva Segovia, reported a small aircraft and a helicopter flying at low level along the regions of Santa María, San Fernando, Jalapa, Condega and Somoto. The local police chief, Commissioned Héctor Zelaya, acknowledged awareness of unauthorized and unidentified flights taking place from around the community – particularly at night. Lacking the appropriate air assets to intercept the suspects, the government dispatched Army and Police foot patrols to search for clandestine landing strips being used by the intruders in the area. The troops pushed towards the region of Las Camelias, in the San Fernando Mountains close to Honduras.

PNN – National Police

Unfortunately this is a common occurrence in Central America, where the drug traffic has intensified. A month after the mentioned incident in El Ocotal, the Anti-Narcotics Police had intercepted a small launch some 56km from Managua, along the Pacific Ocean, finding some two tons of cocaine in its interior.

The Nicaraguan National Police dedicates considerable resources to fighting the drug traffic, kidnapping rings, and money laundering. Since 2006, the Nicaraguan National Police (PNN) is under the command of First Commissioned Aminta Elena Granera Sacasa, appointed by the previous President Enrique Bolaños Geyer to replace PC Edwin Cordero Ardila. To have a better understanding of the Nicaraguan National Police, this author visited Major Commissioner Aquiles Alonso Sevilla Midence at his PNN Public Relations office at the Main HQ at Plaza del Sol in Managua, who cordially welcomed and provided us with the requested information.

According to the National Census, Nicaragua has some 5,142,098 citizens, which would suggests that the country maintains one of the smallest police institutions in the region. By 2005, the PNN counted with some 8,666 agents, but by the following year, the First Commissioner listed 12,300 professional and reserve officers. These elements derive from a General Directorate, and are distributed between 26 police divisions, including the DAEM, DOEP, INTERPOL, Police Intelligence, Drugs Investigations, and Public Security. The PNN operates from precincts (delegaciones), sub-precincts (sub-delegaciones), police sectors and posts. The precincts are located at Matagalpa, Managua, León, Chinandega, Estelí, Madriz, Nueva Segovia, Carazo, Granada, Masaya, Rivas, Boaco, Chontales, Jinotega, Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte (RAAN), Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur (RAAS), Río San Juan, Zelaya Central and Triangulo Minero.

A Development and Modernization Program was implemented in 2001, and the first phase was completed in 2005. This program had its basis on the 1995 Constitutional Reform-Law 228, which dictated the Police Model Regulations, and other necessary documents. In 2002, Disposition 032/02 reorganized the National Police Criminal Investigations Division into a Support Police (Auxilio Policial) and Police Intelligence (Inteligencia Policial) divisions.

The PNN has received considerable support from the European Union, particularly from the Spanish International Cooperation AECI. Spain has dispatched several missions who have assisted in the establishment of the Criminal Lab, and training an equipment of the Immediate Reaction Group (GIR). The Swedish ASDI has provided funds for the construction of 22 police installations, and equipment. The list of benefactors includes the German GTZ, British DFID, Save the Children (Sweden), UNFPA, BID, International Plan, and the Danish DANINA. The China-Taiwan Agency has provided considerable assistance along with JICA-Japan and PNUD-Japan. It is of particular interest that although the locals have suffered numerous wars and huge quantities of weapons remain in civilian hands, the country does not report the same problems with the brutal gangs (Maras) that distinguish the neighbors. It also reports fewer problems with kidnapping rings than other, more prosperous, regional countries.

However, the huge quantities of war-material in the streets has resulted in the establishment the Dirección de Armas, Explosivos, y Municiones (DAEM – Arms-Explosives and Ammunitions Directorate). A bust in 2005 highlight the problem: the PNN confiscated 21 rockets, 462 boxes of Nitroglycerine, seven RPG-7s, 1,802 explosives, two G3 rifles, one Galil, 225 AKMs, eight pistols, three machine guns, 188 other small arms and others in a single raid.

TAPIR, on the other hand, refers to Tácticas y Armas Policiales de Intervención y Rescate – the PNN’s SWAT team – under the DOEP command. The Tapirs are trained by the Army’s COE (Comando de Operaciones Especiales). The unit deploys in pairs, with four operators forming a Team, and several Teams forming patrols and detachments. The organization includes a combat swimmers unit, and their main small arms consists of Uzi and Mini-Uzi SMGs, along with Macro-Galil and Micro-Galil rifles for close quarters operations, and AKM rifles for more conventional operations.

Until recently, the Police Special Operations Direction (DOEP – Dirección de Operaciones Especiales Policiales) comprises the mentioned TAPIR group, the Special Brigade in charge of crown control and physical support, the K9 Unit, the Embassy and Objectives Detail (Departamento de Protección de Embajadas y Objetivos) Operations Department, the Rapid Reaction Group (GIR – Grupo de Intervención Rápida), and two support offices.

Many of those police units that I was able to observe in Nicaragua patrol the city on extended cab pickup trucks, and indeed the PNN has received some 420 examples by 2006. By comparison, there were 122 patrol cruisers and 804 motorcycles during the same year. By 2003, the PNN had an arsenal consisting of 2,229 pistols; this had increased by 2006 to 4,795 handguns, including 2,566 models acquired during 2004 and 2005. In regards to rifles and shotguns, the PNN listed 3,795 models by June 2006. Small arms totaled 8,590. Most weapons I was able to observed were AKM-S rifles (many of them were the North Korean Type-68), with metallic folding stock. The PNN operates some three Cigarette-type speedboats and a few other launches.

PNN agents must attend and complete their initial training at the Walter Mendoza Martinez Police Academy (ACAPOL), established under Police Law No.228, of 31 July 1996, published on August 23. French advisers have trained the Special Brigade elements, while Spanish advisers have assisted the GIR and the TAPIR. The Nicaraguan police commandos are ready to go anywhere, and at anytime, to accomplish their tasks, responding to the Ministry of Government (Interior).

Army Commandos

With the implementation of the Free Trade Agreement, the Central American governments have agreed to organize a Rapid Reaction Force tasked to fight the drug traffic and international terrorism. It is expected that Nicaragua will dedicate some 600 members of the Army Special Forces Command, Antiterrorist Units, the Air and Naval Forces, and Military Intelligence.

When I first visited the Army’s Special Forces Command nest at the vicinity of the Xiloa Lagoon, the unit was the responsibility of Lt. Col. Rafael Ramírez Gomes. The COE was tasked as the main element of the SAR and Humanitarian Unit, which demanded a deployment within 35 minutes from any alert. This Comando de Operaciones Especiales (C.O.E.) comprises some 600 highly motivated and trained men. Upon arrival we are met by then major and today commander Lt. Col., Manuel Salvador Gaitán, and Cpt. Matamoros, two warriors trained by European Special Forces. They would escort me deep into the base. The first time I came face to face with the Nicaraguan commandos had been long ago, when attending the change of command of the Gral. Humberto Ortega to General Joaquín Cuadra Lacayo, outside Managua. The Nicaraguan Army has always opened its doors to us, allowing several visits to the country and institutions. US forces had the opportunity to work alongside a platoon of these commandos when they formed part of the Chavalo Task Force, attached to the Spanish Plus Ultra Brigade in Iraq.

During the 2nd Civil War between the Sandinistas and the Contras in the 80s, and as a result of the military experience, the Army organized the Batallones de Lucha irregular (BLI). They were trained in airborne techniques, jungle warfare and led by Cuban or Chilean advisers. By 1985, the EPS fielded 13 such units: BLI Simon Bolivar, BIL Coro de Angeles, BLI Ramon Raudales, BLI German Pomares, BLI Juan Pablo Umanzor, BLI Santos Lopez, BLI Miguel Angel Ortez, BLI Farabundo Marti, BLI Sucrates Sandino, BLI Francisco Estrada, BLI Pedro Altamirano, BLI Juan Gregorio Colindres and BLI Rufo Marin. Each of these battalions fielded 700 men equipped with AKM rifles, SVD precision rifles, RPD and RPK machine guns, backed by Soviet 60mm, 82mm and 120mm mortars and AGS-17 grenade launchers. SShK 38/46 12.7mm heavy machine guns were mounted on vehicles and helicopters. Complementing the BLIs were small Light Hunter Battalions (Batallones Ligeros de Cazadores – BLC). They were to operate much in the same manner as Venezuelan hunter battalions, or 250 men divided in two companies. Their mission was to find the enemy and to fix their position so the BLIs then would come to destroy them with their superior firepower and mobility. There were 19 BLC, including the BLC Rigoberto Cruz, BLC Gaspar Garcia Laviana, BLC Oscar Benavides, BLC Modesto Duarte, BLC Edgar Munguía and BLC Adam Gomez.

The Contras operated in small battalion-size “task forces,” small-company size “detachments,” and squad size “groups.” These were effective in tying up thousands of troops and destroying the economy. For good measure, the Sandinista government claimed dictatorial powers and established rough and brutal repression, only feeding the Contra ranks. Furthermore, within a brief time after taking over, the FSLN government was pursuing radical economic and social policies at home and building up military strength with the support of the Soviet Bloc. The government also started involving itself on behalf of local and Marxist guerrilla movements in neighboring El Salvador and Guatemala.

Following Cuban and Soviet doctrine on highly mobile (but heavy) armored formations for forced reconnaissance tasks and as spearhead breakthrough forces, the EPS established the elite Brigada de Tropas “Pedro Altamirano.” Geographically the country divides into three regions. The largest in extent is the triangular mountain region, which occupies the center of the country, to the east of Lake Nicaragua and north of the frontier with Costa Rica. A broad strip of lowland runs north-south, roughly parallel with the Caribbean coast. Another much narrower strip of lowland contains two large lakes, Lake Managua and Lake Nicaragua. The country is mountainous, although not to the extent of some Central American Republics, with peaks as high as 2,000 meters. With the war against counterrevolutionaries coming from Honduras and Costa Rica, the Pedro Altamirano troops had to be ready to fight in any terrain; and they were trained in parachute and reconnaissance techniques at El Cacho, Pinar del Río (Cuba).

However, they remained mechanized, equipped with PT-76 light tanks, BTR-60 APCs, and BRDM armored vehicles, inappropriate for use in the densely-forested mountains. Even so, the Contras managed to destroy only two BRDMs throughout the war. They were ambushed in one of the mountain roads, with the rebels firing dozens of AP 40mm grenades from M79 launchers. The Contras had positions in elevations overlooking the road, and the rounds landed on the lightly protected roof of the BRDMs. Later, the Nicaraguan Spec Ops would adopt the M79 grenade launcher as one of their favorite weapons, many coming from former-National Guard warehouses, and large catches captured to the Contras.

One of the flaws on the use of the Altamirano Brigade was that the Air Force lacked the heavy air transport aircraft necessary for true airborne movement of the heavy equipment. The Army realized that there was a need for something lighter and highly mobile, and with the capacity of taking the fight to the enemy anywhere in the hills. Around 1985, the military decided to include special operations units as part of its order of battle (Orbat). With troops from the Pedro Altamirano brigade and volunteers from the Ministry of the Interior’s (MINIT) Permanent Territorial Companies (COPETE) the Army organized the first Pequeñas Unidades de Fuerzas Especiales (PUFE – Small Special Forces Units).

A PUFE fielded 63 commandos, all trained at El Cacho in Cuba. A year later, the military had increased the PUFEs to three units, forming the first Compañía de Destino Especial (CODE – Special Destiny Company). Soon after, the Batallón de Fuerzas Especiales “Julio Buitrago Urróz” had been organized with three CODEs. By 1986, the CODEs were re-dominated Destacamentos (Detachments), and all the special operations forces were housed at Asturias.

The Spec Ops HQ was moved to Chiltepe, Managua, in 1987, and starting in 1988, the PUFE-BON Julio Buitrago Urroz became the premier tactical unit of the military, adding a reconnaissance, a submarine and an air assault detachment to the three special operations detachments of the order of battle.

With the Pedro Altamirano Recce Armored Brigade, the BLIs, BLCs, and the CODEs from the EPS and the MINIT’s COPETEs and Border Guards, the Sandinista High Command decided to finish up the Contras once and for all. “Operación Soberanía” was launched along the Costa Rican border against ARDE guerrillas. Spearheading the offensive were the PUFEs of the Buitrago Urroz Battalion and two submarine exploration nucleus from the Pedro Altamirano Brigade.

ARDE, originally led (or misled) by Eden Pastora, had been infiltrated by Sandinista intelligence operatives, and was in disarray due to internal fights. The Sandinista conventional operation – complemented by special operations actions in the rear, and well inside Costa Rica – disarticulated ARDE.

Trying to repeat the same success than Sovereignty, the EPS launched some 10,000 men in “Operación Danto” in March 1988. Danto had as a target the guerrilla camps across the Honduran border. Again COPETEs, BLIs, BLCs, CODE/PUFEs spearheaded the assault. The camps were overrun, and the Contra guerrillas desperately fought back from well inside Honduran territory. The Honduran responded with air support for the guerrillas, and after a few days, reluctantly accepted the US offer to heli-transport troops to the region. There seem to have been a consensus by the Hondurans that the Sandinistas were just taking care of national business by attacking the Contra Camps, even inside their own territory. Eventually, Danto would come to a halt after some Mi-8s had been lost to the Hondurans, and after the US threatened to deploy the 82nd Airborne Division.

As the war came to an end in 1990, the 13 BLIs were reduced to 13 security companies, and the hunter battalions disbanded, the artillery, tank and mechanized brigades were reduced to a single entity.

C.O.E.

Although the Soviet Union passed into discredited oblivion soon after the dismissal of the Sandinista government, Cuban assistance, particularly for the military, continued until about 1994. Eventually, all assistance from the former Communist Block countries dried up. No positive efforts were initially made to fill the philosophical vacuum left by Nicaragua’s former role models. However, more recent statements and documents, especially in connection with the armed forces, indicate the apparent beginning of an effort to forge a new doctrine more appropriate to present political circumstances and the situation of the country.

Soon after the end of hostilities in 1990, Spec Ops were re-organized in two SF battalions directly under the control of the EPS General Command (Comandancia). The 1st PUFE-BON Buitrago listed the 11th Detachment (DOE-Destacamento de Operaciones Especiales), 12th DOE & 13th DOE as part of its TOE. The 2nd PUFE-BON Altamirano comprised the 21st DOE, 22nd DOE and 23rd DOE. The 2nd PUFE-BON Altamirano was a heavier entity, counting on PT-76 and BRDMs for its operations. Ironically, with the end of the war, the armored assets recovered their importance and elite status due to the new emphasis of the Armed Forces.

Between 1992 and 1995, the Army went through the peace demobilization process. The Comando de Operaciones Especiales (COE) is established in 1995 as well, and housed in the vicinity of Xiloa Lagoon, close to Managua. The COE was first organized with four Special Operations Detachments (DOES), and a Fire Support Unit. Today, the COE comprises a Support Apparatus, and three Departments: Command, PPUU (Pequeñas Unidades – Small Combat Units), and Security Element. The Pequeñas Unidades de Combate comprises three Special Operations Detachments (1st, 2nd and 3rd DOES), an Anti-Tank Detachment, and a Defense & Fire Support Detachment. Each DOES is divided in binomios (pairs), Equipos (each 5-man), Grupos (each 4 Operational Groups and a Command Team), and Destacamentos (4 Operational and a Command Groups). The COE also deploys one Special Operations Platoon in support of the Northern Military Detachment.

Other Elites

The Air Force handles today a single Compañía de Paracaidistas (Paratrooper Company), comprising some 120 elements divided into a Search and Rescue Detachment, and an Air Special Operations Detachment. The unit has received specialty training by French commandos and Naval Infantry at Martinica.

It is now known that Major Anastasio Somoza Portocarrero’s EEBI prepared the Primera Compañía de Infantería de Marina (1st Marine Company), and the unit was forged by fire in the closing days of the Somoza’s Regimen. The first Naval Infantry units of the modern Nicaraguan military were basically established within the Ministry of the Interior’s (MINIT) Border Guard Troops in the early 1980s. Eventually, the Nicaraguan Sandinista Army would establish several infantry outfits attached to the Naval Force. Today, there is a fusiliers company operating from San Juan del Sur, as part of the local Port Authority; there are also two additional companies assigned to the Naval Regions at the Pacific and the Atlantic, and some detachments assigned to the Northern and Southern Military Detachments. It is specified that these outfits operate in the installation security role and not properly as amphibious units.

There are several issues that afflict the Nicaraguan National Security today, between them elicit weapons, human and drug traffic. The PNN’s Justice Support (DAJ-Auxilio Judicial), the Anti-Narcotics, Financial Investigations (DIE-Investigaciones Económicas), INTERPOL, and the Central Criminal Lab (LCC-Laboratorio Central de Criminalística) divisions coordinate with other 12 Central American Law Enforcement Regional Plan components to fight contraband, drug traffic, money laundering, kidnappings, and other organized crime activities. According to statistics provided by the PNN, the war has netted 6,614 operations between 2000 and 2005, resulting in the seizure of 22,247kgs of cocaine, along with 588,533 marihuana plants and 279.82kgs of heroine.

All this demonstrates that elite outfits of the Ministry of Government’s National Police and the National Army’s elite forces are spearheading the fight against the drug traffic and organized crime anytime and anywhere in Nicaragua.

The Ivema Bochica Gun Truck

The explosion shook the crew violently as their vehicle staggered heavily from side to side. Minutes after the explosion the occupants, all unharmed and without wounds, exited the vehicle. The Bochica had been damaged by a mine, which had been detonated to the right and not directly underneath the machine. Although there were components that had been bent and torn by the explosion, the Bochica was repaired in just a short time, allowing it to continue its task. This was not an attack of the narco-guerrilla but rather a test of the Gila APC developed by the International Vehicle & Equipment Marketing (Ivema) from South Africa. André Mouton, the company’s Director of Operations, tells us that although the Gila follows the typical silhouette and “V” floor of the Casspir, it is actually a new vehicle built under the specifications established by the Colombian Army. Once in Colombia for testing, the vehicle received the name of Bochica, and was put to the test.

The designer of the project and representatives of Ivema insisted that the tests of explosives were carried out with crew complement to demonstrate not only the capacities of the vehicle cross-country, but also the high level of protection provided. This meant a Colombian Special Forces motorized squad in its interior. The Colombian Army actually received a handful of the APCs to test in country. André Mouton explains the details of the machine, pointing that the Gila is wider than the Casspir, measuring 6,390mm in length, 2,500mm width, 2,750mm height, and 3,800mm base. These dimensions translated into added and improved comfort to the crew, but also in greater stability. The vehicle fits perfectly inside the C130, facilitating deployment.

Another consideration, especially useful for export and international deployment, is that the vehicle is modified from left to right side driving without any mayor structural change. The vehicle is already set for driving one way or another by simply switching the steering wheel from left to right and vice versa by unplugging and plugging back some components. Time was taken to introduce other mechanical improvements and increase the level of protection against explosions and mines, which now exceeds NATO standards (4569 Stanag Level 4). The new vehicle has a combat weight of 9,720kg, with a payload of 2,280 @ 12,000 (13.600kg margin), and a gross weight of 12,000kg. The Gila was ready in May of 2006. Mouton tells us that the Colombians requested a purely transport variant with the crew seating facing each other and with an interior space for a crew of 2 and 9 motorized infantrymen. One of the consequences was that interior space available for equipment was reduced. The turret was specified to be simple and limited to a single heavy machine gun, having a traverse of 360 degrees. The mechanical components were placed in modular form and those more delicate implements were placed within the protective armor. The modules allow the adaptation of a number of details. The originally selected engine is the Mercedes-Benz Euro-3 turbocharged diesel 4800cc, developing 215hp (160kw), with a maximum torque of 780 Nm @ 1200-1800 rpm. Although the engine is a 4 cylinder model, it produces more force and is much more efficient and reliable than the V8 used in the Casspir. Another advantage of this particular engine is its easy availability on the commercial market in South Africa as well as in Colombia, and most countries of the world. The Mercedes Euro-3 pushes the vehicle to a maximum speed of 105km/h, and allowing it to surpass gradients of 60 degrees. The 28V electrical system depends from a 100 Amp alternator.

Mouton also gave us a look of a mock up of a Gila modified to Brazilian Federal Police Department (DPF) requirements. The DPF prefers a combat infantry variant, with back-to-back seats to allow the use of firing ports by the mounted squad. The turret is fixed, but equipped with viewfinders and four small firing ports for the use of small arms from the interior. The DPF model has been equipped with protective shields that fold over the frontal bulletproof glass windows. Each vehicle costs about USD $400,000. On the other hand, 23 overhauled Casspirs were sold to Peru, with 20 going to the Police and 3 to the Naval Infantry.

Ivema tells us that the tests were successful in Colombia, but was not clear if additional machines were ordered. Then in April, Ivema announced the first order of 12 Gilas by an undisclosed African customer.

The Brazilian government must rely on a number of crack military units to maintain control of its borders. Realizing that Brazil could be an open door to international and local terrorists, the military has organized outfits able to deal with such threats and protect the State. This has resulted in one of the most efficient armies in Latin America, and yet one of the least known outside the region. The Army fields several brigades, to include 1 Parachute, 1 Spec Ops, 1 Air Assault Light Infantry, 1 light infantry for peacekeeping Ops and Urban Warfare, 1 Frontier, 2 armored, 4 mechanized, 5 jungle, 10 motorized, 4 divisional artillery, 2 construction engineer, 1 air defense, and 1 army aviation.

Small arms include M964 and variants (Imbel FAL), Imbel MD2 & MD97 rifles. Special operators make intensive use of the M4 carbine along with FAMAS, G3A3 and G3SG1 rifles. Taurus is now distributing the Tavor TAR-21 to the Frontier Bde. Submachine guns include the Taurus M972 (Beretta M-12), and the MP5 range. Snipers have access to the Barrett M82A1, HK PSG-1, M700 and ACGL rifles. Elite outfits use the HK21E and the Minimi-Para Mk-2. The MAG 60-20 is distributed to all the services.

Light Infantry

Due to the nature of the country, which is covered in most part by the dense Amazonian rain forest, many of the military units are trained and geared for jungle warfare. The Centro de Instrução de Guerra na Selva (Selva – CIGS) operates from Manaus, sharing installations with the Amazon’s Military Command (Comando Militar da Amazônia). The Center prepares leaders in the conduction of small unit tactics. The Jungle Warfare Training develops in three phases: Jungle Survival, Skill Development, and Jungle Operations.

The Jungle Warfare Training Center prepares operators for the jungle, hunter, and frontier infantry outfits. These are particularly adapted and skilled to operate in the Amazon’s environment. The Jungle Infantry units include the 1ª Brigada de Infantaria de Selva (Bda.IS) also known as Brigada Lobo D’Almada, the 2nd Bda.IS or Brigada Ararigbóia, the 7th Bda.IS, the 10th Bda.IS, the 16th Bda.IS, the 17th Bda.IS or Brigada Príncipe da Beira, and the 23rd Bda.IS.

There are several other outfits that appear to operate independently from the brigade structure, including the 1st Jungle Infantry Battalion (1º Batalhão de Infantaria de Selva [BIS]- Batalhão Amazonas), the 2º BIS – Batalhão Pedro Teixeira, the 4º BIS – Batalhão Plácido de Castro and the 8º BIS.

The Jungle Brigades and Battalions deploy in Destacamentos de Operações de Selva (DOS), which are small 12-men units providing long distance reconnaissance, surveillance and patrols along the borders. The DOS are inspired in their training, organization and doctrine on the A Teams of the USSF, with two officers and 10 enlisted NCOs. The preferred weapons include the legendary Para-FAL, and MAG MGs.

The Hunter Battalions include the 19º Batalhão de Caçadores (BC), the 23rd BC, the 24th BC, the 25th BC, and the 28th BC.

The light infantry also lists the Frontier Guard Command, which operates from Amapá, and the 18th Frontier Infantry Brigade, operating from Mato Grosso. In the same State of Mato Grosso we find the 2nd and 17th Frontier Infantry Battalions. In addition, Special Frontier Platoons have been established to monitor the frontier; each PFE is formed with 50 men.

The very harsh Caatinga Region is home of the elite 72° Batalhão de Infantaria Motorizado (or 72° BIMtz), better known as Batalhão General Victorino Carneiro Monteiro. Its HQ is at Petrolina, Pernambuco, having its origins with the 2nd Riflemen Company/35th Inf Bn. (Feira de Santana)/10th Motorized Infantry Brigade. The company operated independently as a specialized outfit since 1975. It became the elite 72° BIMtz in 1982, when the Army realized the need for a larger unit to operate in this vast and difficult area. The battalion deployed to Angola as part of the UN forces between September 1995 and April 1996.

Mountain warfare is the dominium of the 11o Batalhão de Infantaria de Montanha (11o BI Mth), from São João Del Rei, Minas Gerais. The lineage of the 11th Mountain Battalion can be traced to 1888, with the establishment of the 28o BI PARDO – RS, as part of the so-called “Canudos” campaign.

Parachute Force

The Vila Militar de Rio de Janeiro holds the colors of the Parachute Infantry Brigade (Brigada de Infantaria Pára-quedistado Exército Brasileiro). The Paras, along with the Air Assault Brigade, is part of the Rapid Action Force (Força de Ação Rápida). Its tasks include tracking, pursuing and apprehending dangerous criminals, poachers and smugglers.

The Parachute Brigade has its origins within the Parachute School established on December 26, 1945. A year before, the government had dispatched 47 soldiers for airborne training in the United States. By 1953 there was a pressing need to establish what was denominated Nucleus of the Airborne Division. By 1969 the Army decided to emphasize smaller, more mobile units, and replaced the Division with the Parachute Brigade in 1971, and this is renamed the Parachute Infantry Brigade in 1985.

Today, the Para Brigade comprises a HHC Company, the 25th Batalhão de Infantaria Pára-quedistas (BIP-Infantry Parachute Battalion), 26th BIP, and 27th BIP, supported by a Pathfinders Company (20ª Companhia de Presursores Pára-quedistas), a Support and maintenance Parachute Battalion (Batalhão de Dobragem, Manuntenção de Pára-quedas e Suprimento pelo Ar), a Field Artillery Battery, and an AAA Battery. There is also a Cavalry Reconnaissance Unit assigned to this outfit, and other support elements.

The 25th Batalhão de Infantaria Pára-quedistas (BIP-Infantry Parachute Battalion) – or 25o BI Pqdt as it is known in Brazil – has its origins with the School Infantry Company raised on 26 December 1945, as part of the Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment at Colina Longa, Deodoro, Rio de Janeiro. Then, on September 5, 1952, the Army expanded the unit to become Airborne Infantry Battalion (Batalhão de Infantaria Aeroterrestre), and in October of 1956 the unit is named the Batalhão Santos Dumont, and in 1961 this becomes the Santos Dumont Regiment. This unit becomes the 3rd Parachute Infantry Battalion, but by November 7, 1973, it becomes the 25th Parachute Infantry Battalion, with three Parachute Riflemen companies (1ª, 2ª & 3ª Companhias de Fuzileiros Pára-quedistas), a Command and Services Company, and a HHC group.

The 26o BI Pqdt and the 27º BI Pqdt. also trace their lineage to Decree Nr 49.863, dated January 11, 1961, establishing the Regimento Santos Dumont. The 26th and 27th Parachute Infantry Battalions are officially established in 1973. The 27º BI Pqdt is based at Sâo Goçnaho.

The 1º Esquadrão de Cavalaria Pára-quedista (1st Parachute Cavalry Squadron) is established on December 21, 1981, with Celso Carlos Antunes as its first commander. According to the Brazilian Army, the unit is today equipped with locally-built Jaracara armored reconnaissance vehicles. In 1993, the Parachute Cavalry expands with the 2nd Parachute Cavalry Platoon. By late-2005, the unit counts with 3 platoons (Pelotões de Cavalaria Pára-quedista), an Administrative Base, and a Command Platoon to meet its tasks.

The 20th Parachute Logistical Battalion remains as the main support unit of the brigade.

Air Assault

The 12ª Brigada de Infantaria Leve (Aeromóvel), from Caçapava, São Paulo, is tasked with air assault and airmobile tasks. The lineage of the unit can be traced to the establishment of the 4th Infantry Brigade in June 1919 around São Paulo. The 4th Inf. Bde. receives several transformations, and in 1971 it becomes the 12th Infantry Brigade assigned to the 2nd Army Division. In 1987 the unit transforms into the 12th Motorized Infantry Brigade, and on June 19, 1995, under Ministerial Order No.023, it becomes the 12th Light Infantry Brigade (Airmobile) from Caçapava.

The Brigade is optimized for air assault, infiltration (air, land and sea), and urban combat. To accomplish its missions, the Brigade depends on the helicopter as a principal means of movement, so it works closely with the 1º Grupo de Aviação do Exército (1st Army Aviation Group). Its subordinated units include the 5th, 6th and 39th Light Infantry Battalions or BILs (Batalhão de Infantaria Leve), the 20th Light Artillery Group, and the 22nd Light Logistical Battalion.

The 5th Batalhão de Infantaria Leve – Regimento Itororó, traces its origins to the 5th Infantry Regiment established in June 1908, with the 13th and 14th Infantry Battalions. The unit transformed throughout the years, until the 2nd of June of 1992, when under Ministerial Order No.030 it became the 5º Batalhão de Infantaria Leve.

The 6th BIL also traces its lineage to several battalions raised in 1908 (16th, 7th and 18th). It became the 6º Batalhão de Infantaria Leve under Ministerial Order No.024, in June 1995. In June 1995, under Ministerial Order No.025, the Army officially adds the 39th Light Infantry Battalion to the 12th Light Infantry Brigade (Airborne), along with the 20º Grupo de Artilharia de Campanha Leve (20 GAC L) (Ministerial Order No.026).

Special Operations Brigade

The Brazilian government started its first CT unit in 1953, with the Ministry of Aviation establishing its own anti-hijacking unit. Out of this, the military started the Talon Project, a 13-week course to prepare all new commandos.

Today, the Air Force (FAB) has the Aeronautical Center of Ground Operations (TO QUOPTE) subordinated to the General Air Operations Command (COMGAR), and comprising the BINFAE-CO (Canoas Special Aeronautics Infantry Battalion). This outfit was established in 2002. One of its units, the 1st CAAAD is equipped with 9K38 Igla Manpads. There is one squadron dedicated to combat search and rescue. In addition, the FAB deploys what it calls the Special Aeronautical Infantry – much like the RAF Regiment – in charge of protecting FAB installations and closely associated to airborne operations. The Batalhão de Infantaria da Aeronáutica Especial deploys units at Dos Afonsos (BINFAE-AF), Brasilia (BINFAE-BR), Canoas (BINFAE-CO), Galeão (BINFAE-GL), Manaus (BINFAE-MN), Recife (BINFAE-RF) and Río de Janeiro (BINFAE-RJ). The TO QUOPTE is complemented with the CSAR unit capability. All these units are equipped with the SIG-550 as their standard weapon.

The Army, on the other hand, depends on its own Special Operations Brigade (Brigada de Operações Especiais), comprising an Administrative Base, the 3ª Companhia de Forças Especiais (Pára-quedista) with base at Manaus, the Special Operations Training Center (Centro de Instrução de Operações Especiais), the NBC Company (Companhia de Defesa Química, Biológica e Nuclear), the 1º Batalhão de Forças Especiais (Pára-quedista), the Destacamento de Operações Psicológicas and the 1º Batalhão de Ações de Comandos (Pára-quedista).

The Brigade was activated in 2004 at Rio de Janeiro. It lists more than 2,000 men ready to deploy anywhere in Brazil within 6 hours notice. There is a small detachment directly subordinated to the President for immediate action. The Brigade has been relocated from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Genoveva, Goiânia, so it can be closer to the Capital, Brasília, and consequently to the Anápolis Air Base and the Santa Genoveva airport.

The nucleuses of the Brazilian Special Forces teams are the DOFE and the DAC. The Destacamento Operacional de Forças Especiais is in charge of reconnaissance. These commandos are experts in infiltration and extraction techniques. The actual raid or hit is carried by the DAC (for Destacamento de Ação de Comandos). Each of these detachments comprises between 12 and 14 men, with 4 officers forming a command element, and four or more “duplas” forming the tactical element. Each dupla consists of two NCOs

Spec Ops Battalion

The Brazilian Spec Ops reorganized under Project Talon, for an emphasis in counter-terrorism. A CT team under this name is said to be operational from volunteers coming from airborne or special operations units, who attend a 14-day selection before attending a 13-week CT-CQB specialization. What is well known and established is that the 1st Special Forces Battalion (1º Batalhão Operações Especiais) has gained considerable reputation as one of the best intervention units in Latin America. A high degree of preparation in urban warfare and intervention is required in order to enter and to bring order to the shantytowns of the big Brazilian cities (the fabelas), which are among the most dangerous in the world. Therefore, the Battalion has been called in on several opportunities to lend a hand to the police. This is not your usual police beat. One of the police patrols was observed exchanging fire with the tugs using M16 rifles and an elderly Madsen machine gun.

The origins of the Brazilian Spec Ops can be traced to a search and rescue parachute unit that was established in 1953. The first SF course was established in 1957, and evolved with its own doctrine and tactics through the years. The 500 strong 1st Special Forces Battalion (1º BFEsp for short) was established on November 1, 1983, moving to the military installations at Camboatá, Rio de Janeiro on September 27, 1984. In November 1991, the battalion took the colors, lineage, and historical name of Batalhão Antônio Dias Cardoso.

The 1º BFEsp divides its forces into a Command Company, the 1st and 2nd Airborne Special Operations companies, a Support Company, and the Counter-Terrorist Detachment (CTD). The CTD is in charge of counter-terrorist actions in the country, and maintains close ties with the GOE of Portugal. The CTD strength is believed to include 200 men divided into platoons of about 25 operators each.

The single Commando Company, at one point part of the SF Battalion, has evolved in the Battalion of Airborne Commando Activities (1º Batalhão de Ações de Comandos [Pára-quedista]). The old installations of the 1º BFEsp became the Centro de Instrução de Operações Especiais (CI OP ESP). The basic Special Operations training has a duration of 16 weeks encompassing jungle, riverine, and mountain warfare. The desert phase takes place at the Caatinga region, with has a particular harsh semi-desert environment.

The Special Forces Training Center offers courses for Snipers (Caçador), infiltrators (Mergulho Operacional), while the Centro de Instrução Pára-quedista General Penha Brasil provides several other specialty courses.

Conflictive Frontier

The military has successfully implemented the SIVAM (or Amazon Vigilance System) at a reported cost of $1.4 billion. Some of the funds come from the U.S. since this radar system will help to monitor small-plane flights over the huge jungle region. The government has stepped up efforts and has set aside a budget of $3.5 billion over the next eight years to acquire transport aircraft, and additional helicopters, for moving troops well inside the jungle. The Brazilian Armed Services are now tasked with controlling the frontier with Bolivia, Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela.

As soon as it took power, the new administration of President Felipe Calderón Hinojosa declared war against the drug traffickers in Mexico. The cartels responded in kind, and this gave way to almost open warfare in the streets of the main Mexican urban centers, with almost 1,000 deaths reported within the first months of 2007. Before this, in mid-2006, the Army intervened in Oaxaca, when a local uprising against the State governor left some 20 dead. In December 2006, the President attempted to transfer 7,500 soldiers, and 2,500 Marines to reinforce the Federal Police (PFP – Policía Federal Preventiva), but the move was resisted by the military, and presented several constitutional challenges. Then in March 2007, the Army was summoned to San Salvador Ateco, after a series of kidnappings and armed encounters between civilians and police.

In an effort to bring control and reinforce law enforcement agencies, the government modified Articles 1st, 2nd, and 2nd Transitory of the Military Organic Law, in May 2007, allowing for the creation of the new elite Federal Support Force Corps (CFAF – Cuerpo de Fuerzas de Apoyo Federal). The Defense Secretariat (SEDENA) provided 1,884 elements of the Army and Air Force. In fact, the initial strength was made up from reorganizing the Special Amphibious Forces Groups (GANFE – Grupos Anfibios de Fuerzas Especiales), and the force is expected to eventually grow to 3,500 elements, with the task of “restoring order and public security, combating organized crime, or performing against acts that threaten the homeland security.”

For years now, the government has attempted to hunt down the cartels using the military, and militarizing some police forces. In 1994, the Army established the Special Airmobile Forces Groups (GAFE – Grupos Aeromóviles de Fuerzas Especiales), and these were followed in 2001 by the GANFEs, also under Army Command, and both types of outfits were charged with arresting drug lords. The Navy also deployed Special Forces (FES) outfits for the same task, and the police organized several special operations units as well. According to press dispatches, for instance, the Special Operations Police Unit (UPOE) from the Oaxaca State Public Security Direction was trained by the Guatemalan Kaibiles between 1994 and 1999 at Vicente Guerrero, Villa de Zaachila, some 15km from Oaxaca City.

In early 2000 when the Army GAFEs were dispatched to Nuevo Laredo, at Tamaulipas, to chase Osiel Cárdenas Guillén of the Gulf Cartel, several commandos deserted to form the a hired-army. Their radio calls used code names starting with “Z”. The “Zetas” offered their services to the drug lords, and the war was on. The cartels are also said to have hired complete units of “kaibilillos” – former Guatemalan Kaibil Commandos. The PFP under the Ministry of Public Security and the Federal Investigations Agency (AFI – Agencia Federal de Investigaciones), subordinated to the District Attorney’s Office (PGR – Procuraduría General de la República), found themselves outgunned by the cartels.

The first step for the new outfit was a National Supreme Court Justice (SCJN) decision that allowed the Military to provide support in homeland security matters. As part of the military offensive, the Armed Forces and Law Enforcement agencies have reorganized and implemented a complete overhaul of the small arms arsenal.

Small Arms Arsenal

The FX-05 Xiuhcóatl is the new standard issued rifle for the Army and is being produced in large quantities by the DIM (Military Industry Department) after HK dropped its complaint for trade mark violations in February 2007.

The P7M13S is the general service pistol, with over 10,000 acquired. The Military Police prefers the P9S while Special Forces prefer the P226, along with Model 5906, and Model 6904. The commandos also use the Steyr M-A1 machine pistol and other small arms. The MP5A2 is the standard submachine gun for officers while the MP5K used for special service together with the MP5SD2 and the MP5SD6. The G3A3 and G3A4 remain as the standard issued rifle, with the MSG-90, PSG-1 and Morelos used by snipers at battalion level. The Model 82A1 is reserved for the GAFEs and the new CFAF. The Army also has an arsenal of some 1,521 shotguns, such as HK510, and Model 590 Mariner.

At squad level, the MINIMI-Para Mk 2 is often seen, along with the HK21A1, which is standard for the Infantry. The AA 7.62N F1 Char No. 1 comes in some of the ERC 90 F1 Lynx, and DNC-1 armored cars, but it is in the process of being replaced with the MAG-60-20, standard for the armored cavalry. The MAG is already a feature of the HWK 11 APCs, along with the MAG-60-20 found on flexible gun mounts on VBL, DN-III, DN-IV Caballo, and DNC-2 armored personnel carriers. The MAG-60-40 is found as a coaxial weapon in the DN-IV Caballo and DN-V Toro APCs. The Browning M2QCB and Browning M2HB, along with the Browning M3M are standard on armored transport vehicles.

The M203 is widely used under the G3 rifle, and it is also encountered as a pistol, and under the M16 rifle; however, the MGL MK1 is becoming the standard grenade launcher along with the German GMG type. The MK 19 MOD 3 is mounted on tripods and flexible pedestals.

Fire support for the infantry comes from Vektor M4L3, C03 Commando, M2 Cazador, M19 and ZCZ M57 60mm light mortars. There are also a great variety of 81mm models, and Brandt 120mm types; for antitank work, the RPG-7V is now standard, along with the French RL-83 Blindicide (some 1,191 acquired). The KAA (204GK) 20mm cannons were once used to equip the modernized M8 armored cars, but these have been exchanged for the South African M2 model, while the GAI-BO1 with the KAB-001 5TG cannon remains as the main AAA piece.

Other Small Arms

The Mexican Navy, and particularly its Marine Corps, deploys a considerable arsenal. Its elite units (FES) appear to prefer the Five-seveN, Mod 92FS and S&W Model 657 pistols and the M1911A1. The P90 is also widely used together with MP5 variants, and UMP submachine guns. The M16A2 rifle and Carbine, M16A2 Commando, and M4 remain as standard issued weapons for the Marines, and some FAL-Paras have also been observed. The MSG90 remains as preferred weapon for Marine snipers along with the PSG-1 model. The Marines carry the Model 590 Mariner shotgun, and the CETME AMELI SAW, and now are taking delivery of MINIMI-Para Mk 2 models. The HK21A1 and MAG-60-20 are also found in tripods and pedestal mounts, while the Browning M3M is found as door guns for the new AS 565MA Panther helicopters, along with the GAU-19/A which arm the MD902 Combat Explorer helicopters.

The Marines use the MGL MK1, and M203PI grenade launchers, as well as the CIS 40AGL model, with the MK 19 MOD 3 found on Mules wheeled vehicles and Trucks. The Marines appear to have taken delivery of some B-300s.

The country has been flooded with arms for the police and thugs alike. The Five-seveN is found in the hands of the Federal District Police, while the Mod 92FS has been observed in the hands of the elite GOE, and AFI. The Glock 17 is standard with the Judicial Antidrug Police, and the P225 is used by the Federal District Police. The AFI uses the S&W Model 5906 while other State Police prefer the Model 6904. The GOPE also uses the Browning HP Mk 3.

The submachine gun arsenal includes the Mod 12S used by the Federal District Police and the CAR-15 R635 (M16 SMG) of the AFI. The PFP carries the MP5A3, which is also a preferred weapon of the Anti-drug Police and State Police forces. The Uzi and Uzi Model B Carbine is found on the hands of several police agents, and in Mexico City several local police agents were observed equipped with the Mendoza HM-3-S. There are also a few MGP-84s made in Peru.

The local police makes wide use of the AR-15 R6000 Sporter, AR-15A1 R613 (M16A1), AR-15A2 R705 (M16A2), AR-15A2 R6530, CAR-15A1 R653 (M16A1 Carbine), CAR-15A2 R725A (M16A2 Carbine), CAR-15A2 R6520 Government Carbine, HK G36A1, G36V, HK33A2, HK33A3, HK33KA3, HK53A3 and Galil SAR. These weapons have also found their way to different crime organizations, along with the ever present AK-47, AKS-47, and AKMS. Most police snipers use the Model 700 while other units use the Model 500ATP8 shotgun.

Hardened Enemies

Article 11 of the Organic Law allows the CFAF to respond directly under the orders of SEDENA instead of the President, and to the request of local civilian authorities. In fact, the creation of the CFAF is only the initial step for an ambitious plan to bring order, and the creation of a new 40,000 strong Federal Police Corps (CFP – Cuerpo Federal de Policía) with a new gendarmerie to be organized for operations in towns with less of 20,000 inhabitants. The plan is said to have been designed by experts from the National Security and Investigation Center (CISEN – Centro de Investigación y Seguridad Nacional), the PFP and the AFI, with advice provided by the Spanish Civil Guard, FBI and DEA. The CFP boss will have links to the Treasury, State, Immigration and Custom departments, and it is expected to have strong links to the US DEA as well, along with increased US presence in the country.

The Mexicans, however, stress that the main problem remains the strong drug consumption of the US market. They point out that 1kg has a street value of USD$12,000 in Mexico, but reaches USD$25,000 at the US border and up to USD$50,000 in any street of an American City.

Almost 20 years ago in December 1989, in Operation Just Cause, the US invaded Panama in an effort to depose and capture General Manuel Antonio Noriega. As a teen, the author had the opportunity to visit the original Comandancia installations and thirty years later had a chance to visit the new installations of the Public Force built over the ashes of the former Comandancia. During this visit the Head of the Department of Public Relations of the Panamanian Public Force, Didacio L. Camargo, assured me that the troops observed in the corridors of the base were just police agents who had returned from operations in the mountains – after all, the Panamanian Defense Forces ceased to exist in December 1989. These police agents sure looked as seasoned soldiers dressed in OD fatigues, jungle hats and boots, assault vests and AKMs. The equipment is needed in order to patrol the vast and dangerous Darien jungle that borders Colombia and the broken terrain along the Costa Rican side. These were members of the Frontier Police; an elite outfit trained and equipped to operate deep in the forest in charge of planning, organizing, directing and executing actions and operations to guarantee the territorial national integrity.

Between 1953 and 1983, military and police duties fell on the National Guard. With the passing of Law No. 20 in 1983, the National Guard was divided into police, territorial, air and maritime forces, and then, on December 23 of the same year, Law No. 44 was passed transforming the agency into the Defense Forces (PDF). The US launched Just Cause on December 20, 1989, bringing to a sudden halt the development of the Panamanian military forces. The Panamanian Public Force (PPF) was created under Executive Decree No. 38 on February 10, 1990 to replace the PDF. The PPF is a law enforcement focused institution comprising the National Police (PNP), a Judicial Technical Police (PTJ), an Institutional Protection Service, the National Maritime Service (SMN) and the National Air Service (SAN). A constitutional amendment passed in 1994 abolished the military. Law enforcement units that are separated from the PPF, such as the Technical Judicial Police, also are directly subordinate to civilian authorities. Drug traffic and protection of the Panama Canal have become a major concern of this new entity, and today, the agencies involved in drug law enforcement are the Panamanian National Police (PNP), the Technical Judicial Police (PTJ), the National Maritime Service (SMN), the National Air Service (SAN), the Customs Service, the Joint Information Coordination Center, and the Drug Prosecutor’s Office.

The Panamanian Public Force

The invasion smashed the Defense Forces and most of the captured equipment was destroyed. The US would not allow another military establishment to be organized in Panama. However, the US-Panamanian Treaty required a force to protect the Canal to be in place before the transfer of 2000, and this originated rumors that the transfer would not take place. Against all odds, the transfer did take place as scheduled, and from the ashes of the Defense Forces the government created the Public Force (PPF) under the Ministry of Government and Justice.

Of the PPF, the Servicio de Protección Institucional (SPI) responds directly to the Office of the President, and was established in 1990 by Carlos Barés. The SPI deploys some 600 men, well-trained and equipped with HK MP5, Glocks and other equipment, for the protection of VIPs and intervention tasks. They are distinguished by the use of black uniforms.

The PTJ (Policía Técnica Judicial) operates under the control of the Panamanian Supreme Court since 1999. The PTJ is Panama’s equivalent of the U.S. FBI and has a small anti-narcotics unit with some 80 members responsible for enforcing national narcotics laws. The PTJ is the lead agency for conducting chemical and criminal investigations, including illegal and pharmaceutical drugs, and it has a proactive task of monitoring chemical shipments imported to, exported from, and transiting Panama. The DEA has a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the PTJ.

Panama’s Customs Service functions as a fiscal organization under the Panamanian Treasury Department. Customs enforces contraband laws and collects import duties. Criminal violations involving other matters, when uncovered by the Customs Service, are referred to the already mentioned PTJ.

Today the Ministry of Government and Justice dedicates some $159.1 millions to security concerns. The National Police (PNP) is its main element of the Ministry’s PPF, deploying some 15,000 agents nationwide. The invading US forces captured between 16 and 19 armored vehicles, but Mr. L. Camargo tells us that the PPF lacks any such vehicle, and the force remains equipped with Infantry equipment only.

By September 1, 2004, the National Police (PNP) had been under the command of Gustavo Pérez. Its forces in Panama City had been divided into Panamá Metro Este, Panamá Metro Norte, and Panamá Metro Oeste, and police precincts at ZP Bocas del Toro, ZP Chiriquí, ZP Darién, ZP Herrera, ZP San Miguelito, ZP Arraijam, ZP Coclé, ZP Cora, ZP Colón, ZP Kuna Ayala, ZP Los Santos, and ZP Veraguas. Additional related tasks are trusted to the Penal Security Police, the Crown Control Unit, Children and Teens Police, the Information and Investigation Direction, and Transit Operations. The Canal Zone Police in charge of the waterway and the other specialty units mentioned above add to the operational status of the PNP. The Service Support Group comprises three units. Of these, the Motorized Police Unit, established in 1993 at Albrook and trained by Venezuelan advisers is equipped with Suzuki DR-350 motorbikes. The unit is considered an elite outfit, and its members are designated Linces, and sport either OD or black fatigues, assault vests, protective helmets, and carry either Uzi or Peruvian MGP-84 Submachine Guns. Under the Specialty Services Direction we found the Maintenance & Riverine and Coastal Operations Unit, the PNP’s own naval flotilla equipped with 10 launches and based at Building 807 from the former Kobe Military Base. Under the same Direction we found the Air Police Unit, a separate entity from the SAN, and established on December 4, 2002, with a MD500E PNP HP1 donated by Taiwan. The Border National Direction keeps troops along both borders. The PNP was equipped with a few old T65 rifles, but now the AKM and variants have been widely distributed along with a few support weapons. The Special Operations Units carry the MP5 and HK53 SMGs.

Without a doubt, the Colombian border remains as a major security concern. Prior to the US invasion of 1989, the Colombian border was watched by elements of the Peace Battalion and the 3rd Diablos Rojos Company. US Army troops took over the tasks momentarily and then it passed to the hands of contractors for about 3 months until the establishment of the Chiriquí Police Zone. However, incursions by Colombian FARC guerrillas were detected at Choco-Urabá region and in January 1993, FARC guerrillas kidnaped missionaries along Púcuro. By October 1996, Colombian paramilitaries had attacked Armila, at Kuna Yala. These armed activities forced the establishment of the Darién Police Zone in 1997, which deployed a specially trained unit of 50 commandos to chase bandits up in the mountains. The problems persisted, and on April 20, 1999, the FARC attacked Sapzurro, followed by another attack on November 19, against Bonga, also at Kuna Yala, forcing a reinforcement of police along Comarca de San Blas. On April 11, 2003, the governments of Panama and Colombia signed the Combitrom Agreement (Comisión Binacional Fronteriza), a Police Cooperation Treaty to increase police and military presence along the border, and today the border police division deploys considerable assets.

The SAN, National Air Service, is responsible for protecting Panama’s air space and conducting aerial patrols. It also provides crop eradication support, humanitarian flights, aerial intelligence, and reconnaissance support to the various law enforcement entities of Panama. The SAN has 393 personnel, providing support for counterdrug operations, and it deploys a platoon conforming the Unidad Aérea de Fuerzas Especiales (UAFE), providing for intervention tasks. The SAN was established in 1990, and it operates from Air Stations at Santiago and David. The 1st Squadron operates six Aviocar C212s; the 2nd Squadron uses UH-1Hs, and a single Bell 407 (SAN 210) donated by Taiwan. After the US invasion of 1989, ENAER (Chile) received a contract for 1.19 millions Balboas (equivalent to the same in US dollars) for the recovery and overhaul of seven T-35 Pilláns, and today the aircraft are flown by the 3rd Squadron.

The SMN (National Maritime Service) is responsible for patrolling Panama’s waterways, operating 37 patrol craft to patrol Panama’s 2,800 kilometers of shoreline and 1,480 islands. US sources indicate that the service endeavors to maintain three patrol craft in the coastal waters of the Chiriqui Province (Pacific), and two patrol craft in the Bocas del Toro (Atlantic-Caribbean) area, to enforce economic and environmental laws as well as providing some deterrence to a full range of illegal activities. The SMN traces its origins to the Departamento de Operaciones Marinas established by Torrijos in 1968; this becomes the Naval Force in 1983, moving operations to Fort Amador. During Just Cause, US forces sank the patrol boats P-202 Presidente Porras in Balboa and P-101 Zarati at the Manzanillo Bay. One of the boats was recovered later.

With the establishment of the SMN in 1990, the government chose the Naval Base at Largo Remo as the first Naval HQ. The SMN developed from that point on, and now accounts for some 600 elements operating from 6 bases and 10 observation posts. In 1991 the SMN occupied installations at Flamenco Island, and in 1998, the former Marine Barracks in the Cocolí Naval Base. A little later, the service expands to Pier 3, at the old Rodman Naval Station, converting into the Vasco Nuñez de Balboa Naval Base, and the Atlantic Flotilla becomes operational at Coco Solo. Later, the installations at former Fort Sherman become the Cristóbal Colón Naval Base, and Naval Observation Posts (POM – Puestos de Observación Marítimos) are established at Taboga, San Miguel, Punta Cocos, Saboga, Pedro González and Otoque Oriente & Occidente as well as the Chimán District in Chimán, Brujas and Gonzalo Vásquez. The Service has established the Cocolí Naval Base Communication Center with the task of coordinating the maritime services.

The SMN has a Marine outfit, which has received training and equipment from the Spanish Civil Guard. The Panamanian Marines and Naval Commandos have their origins with the 1st Compañía de Infantería Naval of the FDP, which operated from Coco Solo, along with the Pelotón de Comandos de Marina (Naval Commandos Platoon) from Fort Amador. Both outfits would be disbanded soon after Just Cause, and replaced with elements of the new SMN. Today, the Maritime Service deploys a Grupo de Operaciones Subacuáticas (Diving Operations Group) under capitán de Corbeta Carlos Quiroz Abrego, qualified for Tactical Diving Operations. In addition, the Naval Infantry element, Infamar (Infantería de Marina), comprises a Grupo de Operaciones Especiales (GOE) and a Grupo de Seguridad. The Special Forces Group is charged with drug interdiction and boarding.

The SMN has received considerable assistance from the US, including a modified landing craft delivered in May 2004, and baptized SMN “Gral. Esteban Huertas” A-402, which arrived from Roosevelt Road Naval Base in Puerto Rico to Base Naval Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, in Panama. With funds from the US Embassy six “Eduardoño” style go-fast boats were rebuilt and donated to the SMN in 2004. Another four boats followed these, and all have new gasoline tanks, twin 200hp Yamaha engines, and radars, Global Positioning Systems (GPS), among other significant enhancements. They have a maximum speed of over 35 knots and its radar has a 12 nautical mile range. Two additional units followed in 2005, along with $50,000 in modern counter-narcotic equipment, and five tactical military vehicles for the PNP, and 18 heavy-duty vehicles for the Public Force.

The SMN was under the command of Ricardo Traad Porras, but in a change of fortunes, Traad Porras was first removed and soon after arrested, in mid-2007 accused of money-laundering. Several other officers were also arrested after a DEA sting operation.

The U.S. Coast Guard Attaché’s Office and the DEA have worked with the GOP to conduct multiple large-scale maritime law enforcement operations to interdict drug shipments in Panama. The operations also provide training in hot pursuit and the boarding of vessels in accordance with international law. These exercises allow both U.S. and Panamanian personnel to gain experience in developing communication, aviation, and search plans. Realizing that the most important material of the SMN flotillas are the five Point class vessels transferred from the USCG, every two years several Latin American countries meet in Panama under exercise Round Out to learn techniques in operations and maintenance of the Points. In order of developing a comprehensive defense of the Canal, the Panamanian government and the US counterpart sponsor a bi-annual exercise attended by Chile, Canada, Ecuador, France, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Peru, Argentina, Mexico, Honduras, Panama, and the United States and designated Panamax. The goal of the exercise is to prepare for the execution, development of standardization and maritime interdiction techniques, rules of engagement, security, and develop command and control of multinational forces in case of emergency.

The Chilean Army has been experiencing an overall reorganization assisted by considerable investment in equipment, training and overall modernization. By October 2006, more than 100 new Humvees had arrived with some other 300 expected to be received during 2007. In June 2006, the Communications Regiment Taparaca (R. TELEC. Nº 6) from Iquique received the first YPR-765 IFVs, and the government announced the establishment of the first Armored Brigade at arid Iquique region. All this was in line with a complete material replacement and restructuring around 1 mountain, 2 motorized and 4 armored brigades while preserving its 7 divisions structure. On January 1, 2007 the Army established the Special Operations Brigade (BOE – Brigada de Operaciones Especiales) at Peldehue, which took over the Special Forces Group/Parachute & Special Forces School from La Colina. The new brigade calls Arteaga Fort home, and absorbs the Special Forces Battalion, Parachute Battalion (conventional airborne unit), and the 6th Commando Regiment (desert ops), and will probably oversee the SF School. The new Mountain Brigade most likely will take over for the 1st and 2nd Commando Regiments (Ranger/Commando type units), and the Pathfinder units – mountain troops Yungay (Nº 3), Talca (Nº 16), Los Angeles (Nº 17) and Guardia Vieja (Nº 18).

In addition, Rafael Ltd. from Israel supplied the powerful AT Spike missile and established a maintenance and Operations Center at the National Workshop MMG No.1 Arica (Mantenimiento de Material de Guerra Nº 1). The AT Spike will supplement the M40A1 RCLs, which have been overhauled and modernized with thermal sights, and infrared rangefinder to provide for all weather operations and maximize range. In December 2006, the government acquired a number of Pumar RHIBs from the local ASMAR for operations with the BOE.

The Army is well equipped, and the small arms arsenal includes the Mod 92F pistol, made by Fábricas y Maestranzas del Ejército (FAMAE), and the CZ75 (FN750), also from FAMAE, which has become the standard sidearm. The FAMAE FT2000 is found in limited service while the standard submachine gun is the FAMAE SAF-MT9 in all variants, including Mini-SAF, standard model, and suppressed. The Uzi and Mini-Uzi are still widely used, particularly by the Fuerzas Especiales while the Ingram M10 and the M11/9 Cobray from SWD Inc. are still encountered, but in reduced numbers. Special Forces also make use of the BXP, from Milkor, South Africa.

The SG540-1 rifles in 5.56x45mm caliber are built under license from SIG by FAMAE, and have been in general service as the standard army issue rifle since 1986. Airborne troops, crews and Special Forces use the shorter SG543-1, also in 5.56x45mm and folding stock. The Galil SAR is limited to Special Forces operators, along with the Galil ARM 354. For precision work, the Army snipers use the SG550-1 Sniper, in caliber 5.56x45mm, along with the HK MSG90, the HK PSG1 (both with the Hensoldt 6x scope), the Galil SR 339, and the Mauser Modell 66SP and Modell 86SR: all these rifles in 7.62x51mm. The SSG3000, also in 7.62x51mm, is encountered along with the M21 in some special units. The range now includes the Model 82A1M in caliber 12.7x99mm.

Second line units use the FAL-50-00, in 7.62x51mm. The Army acquired 14,500 SG510-4 in 1962, followed by the SG542-1 in 1986, and all these are still encountered in limited service with examples of the G3A3 being used by Mountain troops. Security units and SF make use of the SPAS 15 from Luigi Franchi SpA in caliber 18.5x70mmR. Squad fire support comes from MINIMI-Para Mk 2 and some FALO-50-42 while platoon support is provided by MAG-60-20, MG42/59, and M60. The Browning M2HB is widely used, and it also equips the 50 or so newly received and overhauled (shortened) M113C&R armored reconnaissance vehicles, and hundreds of M113A5.

FAMAE supplies the GM 78-F7 grenade, which is an offensive model with optional fragmentation sleeve for use as defensive weapon. Industrias Cardoen S.A and Metalurgica de Norte Ltda (METALNOR) have supplied the Offensive/Defensive Type, which has a hollow-charge in bottom, the Mini (defensive grenade), and the MK 2. The Army has acquired the MGL MK1, made by Milkor, and the M203PI from RM Equipment, Miami. The model 40AGL from Chartered Industries of Singapore (CIS) is also in use.

FAMAE builds the MO 60 AV Commando 60mm mortars made under license from TDA, Meudon-La-Forêt, France, M19 models, also in 60mm, and 81mm models. Hyrdoar SA, from Brazil, has supplied M18A1 RCLs in caliber 57x305mmR, used along the M72A3 LAWW in 66mm, the Armbrust in 67mm (from CIS), and the B-300 in 82mm. Some Carl Gustavs have also been observed. The Spike is coming in line and supplements the 106mm M40A1 – many of them modernized with thermal and IR system for all-weather ops.

The Army has purchased 139 YPR IFVs from the Belgian SABIEX, and similar vehicles from excess equipment from The Netherlands. The Army also contracted for hundreds of surplus M113A2 and similar Italian made CCV-1. They are all being modernized with 300hp turbocharged engines (hence M113A5 designation), and 60 of them will receive the KUKA E23 turret with a 25mm MK30-1 while 125 of the YPR IFVs will receive KBA-B02 cannons. Several MK 19 Mod3 grenade launchers from General Dynamics Defense were also purchased in 2001 to be mounted on the M113 APCs. The Army placed an initial order for 118 Leopard 2A4, which will allow for the final retirement of the M41 and M24 models, along with the AMX-30 and the M50 Isherman while the Leopard 1-V will be relegated to second line units. The artillery will also modernize with the arrival of some 24 155mm M109A5 self-propelled units, and being overhauled by RUAG, and some excess chassis will be equipped with LAR160 tactical missiles from Israel. The Army has acquired over 407 MAG-60-40 Coaxial T3 MGs for use as coaxial guns on the Leopard 1V and YPR-765. The AA 7.62N F1 is used as flexible gun on AMX 30B1 and AMX 30B2 main battle tanks, along with the M693 (CN MIT 20 F2) 20 guns.

The air defenses have been somewhat deficient until recently; depending on self-defense last-ditch guns and Mistral MANPADs. There are several M168 Vulcans, some 20 TCM-20, and more than 100 HS693-B3.1/GAI-CO1 AAA mounts with KAD-B13-3 (HS820) 20mm cannons. The KAD-B16/B17 (HS820) in caliber 20x139mm is used in the locally made FAMIL-2M twin air defense mounts, and there is a limited number of Rh202 from Rheinmetall GmbH. There are 24 Oerlikon GDF-001 KDB twin mounts with 35x228mm cannons completing the ground air defenses.

With the modernization effort, one of the most potential and interesting options to the Army could be the adoption of the Israeli Defender CLO system as a close-in ground air defense. The Defender ground Based SHORAD was developed by Rafael Ltd. and Thales Nederland, which combines the Rafael’s Barak missile and Thales’ Flycatcher Mk2 (already used for the GDF-001). Most important, the Defender CLO is simply an adaptation of the naval surface to air missile Barak to a ground vertical launcher inside a light trailer. The Chilean adopted the Barak for their frigates in the 1990s, but the new frigates acquired recently in The Netherlands and the UK came with their own – and different – air defense systems. This made the Barak redundant, but by no means less capable. Nevertheless, it would be unthinkable for the Navy to use three similar systems (Sea Sparrow, Sea Wolf and Barak), so the transformation of the sea Barak to a ground based system would be possible, and economically feasible.

The Defender is a state-of-the-art, modern autonomous weapon, intended to present the user with an effective defence, featuring large hemispherical coverage. It can search, identify, track, shoot and destroy all potential air intruders. The maintenance Barak is contained within a sealed launching canister, which protects the missile not only in the operation, but also in storage and handling, contributing to readiness and reliability of the missile, confirmed by an automatically executed built-in self-test (BIT), prior to launch. With all, in early April 2007 the Army acquired some 24 Gepard 5PZF-B air defense vehicles with KDB 35mm guns and autonomous radar to protect armored formations; some sources even indicate that the total Gepards will be 60, but this is doubtful.

The Infantry will be completely re-equipped with the HK G36 as well; and given the country’s various environments and geographical features, training continues to be intensive and diversified. All these items, sophistication and preparation makes the Chilean Army one of the better equipped in South America, if not the best.

The Colombian attack on February 29, 2008, against the FARC Front 48 stronghold, some 1,800 meters to the south of the Putumayo river, in Santa Rosa – and inside Ecuadorian territory – caught the rebels by surprise, and resulted in the fall of Luis Edgar Devia (aka Raul Reyes), a leader of the FARC directorate. Along with the body of Raul Reyes, the Colombian government captured a number of laptops with all sorts of intelligence information to include correspondence between the insurgents and Hugo Chavez in Venezuela, and their contacts in Ecuador. This victory was followed by the announcement in May that Manuel Marulanda Vélez “Tirofijo” (real name Pedro Antonio Marín), founder of the FARCs and its maximum leader, was dead. A few days before, Nelly Avila Moreno, aka Karina, another member of the FARC directorate, had been taken into custody.

To continue the fight, in April 2008 the government specified that the upcoming budget would provide 37,000 new soldiers between the previous 2007 and 2010 numbers. The budget also allows for 8,000 new rifles for a total of 13,000 small arms, and 185 gun trucks to be acquired between May and November of 2008. More helicopters are expected for added mobility around Guaviare, Guainía and Vaupés, and the police will receive 511 new motorcycles.

The Colombian Army, with considerable assistance in particular from the US and the British, and Europeans and Israel in general, has become a well equipped and trained force. Equipment comes from Indumil (short for Military Industries) with three main installations: General José María Córdoba Factory manufacturing small arms, particularly the Galil rifle under IMI (now IWI) license; Antonio Ricaurte Factory producing projectiles and explosives; and Santa Bárbara Factory producing ammunition. The arsenal is diversified and abundant.

In 1989 the armed forces received the first 2,020 examples of the Model 92FS (Beretta M9), which is the standard sidearm along the superb CZ75B. Some Browning HP pistols are still encountered, and the Glock 17 and Jericho 941 are also seen in operations along the locally produced Indumil Scorpio. Squad officers observed in Bogotá carried the MP5 submachine gun, and certainly the HK product is seen in all its variants: MP5A2, MP5A5, MP5A5NF, MP5SD3 and MP5K, particularly in the hands of elite forces. Some units took the Colt SMG in 9mm.

The obsolete M1 Garand was eventually replaced in the 1970s with the G3 rifle, with some 30,000 purchased in the G3A3 and G3A4 variants, along with PSG-1 with Hensoldt scope for precision work, and the HK21 for squad support. In the 1980s the Colombian government selected the Galil rifle to replace the G3, purchasing some 100,000 models in 7.62mm caliber. Starting in 1996, Indumil acquired licensed production rights, and by 2005 production had changed to the Galil SR/AR/MAR 5.56mm and variants. The conversion of all 7.62mm models to the standard 5.56mm was also implemented. The National Police receives the Galil semiautomatic-only version. The transfer of technology started with Indumil purchasing the required machinery to produce the rifle and dispatching a technical team to Israel. Israel Weapons Industry (IWI) also dispatched technicians to Colombia to assists in the setting up production. The manufacturing of the Galil in country saves around US$40 million a year in government revenues. Ironically, Israel is now purchasing the rifle from Colombia since IWI has ceased production in favor of the Tavor, and Colombia has become the sole producer of the Galil since 2006. Two years later, Indumil had increased the manufacturing of the Galil rifles to 42,000 examples a year, and it has increased the annual production of 5.56mm cartridges to 61 million.

More recently, the Army has been receiving the Tavor TAR-21 and CTAR-21 with MIL-STD-1913 sight rail incorporated. The US has been supplying M16A1 and M16A2s with the first 1,126 acquired in 1990. The Military Forces have received in excess of 4,358 M16A1 Carbine, M16A2 Commando, M4, and M4A1, and more than 16,468 M14 rifles. US assistance also delivered more than 243 M24 and M40A1 sniper rifles starting in 2003. The Military Forces started receiving the Barrett Model 82A1M in 2005, and has incorporated USAS-12 and Model 870P shotguns.

The HK21 has been replaced with the M249A1, Vektor S77 and Negev light machine guns for squad support, and is complemented with some MAG-58 types. The M60 is universally used since 1985, to include the M60D in pedestal mounts in helicopters. Over 1,000 M60E3s have been received since 1985, along with over 800 M60E4 examples. The US delivered more than 650 M79 grenade launchers and in excess of 450 M203 models. Additional M203s came from Turkey, and Indumil now produces it as well. The Army makes considerable use of the RBG-6 MGL, a Croatian copy of the Milkor model, and the MGL MK1, both using the 6-round revolver type system.

The local Indumil produces the M26 and M67 defensive grenades. While the light antitank weapon arsenal includes M72A3 models, there are also Russian types such as RPG-7V, RPG-16 Udar, RPG-22 Neto and RPG-27 and RPG-29. Some elite units have received the AT4 and Carl Gustaf M3, and the Naval Infantry uses the Intalaza C-90 and Apilas. Support comes from MK19 Mod 3 MGLs, mounted on pedestals, and GAU-17/A, GAU-19/A, M134, and Chain Gun machine guns mounted on helicopters. For heavier support, the military counts with the Browning AN-M2, M2HB, and M3.

Local factories produce 100-pound and 125-pound bombs of local design as well as modern radio communication equipment. The government has contracted for the delivery of some 12,000 HE rounds for 155mm howitzers, along with some 4,000 rounds for 120mm mortars. IWI has also provided and facilitated the production of a 60mm commando light mortar and the military has cranked up local production of ammunition for its Mod-L (ECIA), MO-60, L-4, Vektor-M1, IMI-C03 Commando, IMI-C06, IMI-C08, M2, and M19 light mortars in 60 and 81mm and 40mm grenade launchers. The government has acquired 38 HY-12 Makina 120mm mortars to replace older models.

The purchases of weapons from Israel have continued, including the first 5 launchers for 50 Spike antitank missiles. These now operate along with Nimrod and TOW types, while the ground troops receive support from M40A1 in 106mm. These recoilless rifles have proved extremely effective, so it is only a matter of time before these elderly weapons are completely modernized to supplement the most modern missiles. Although the 106mm projectile is still effective against most armor, there is no need at this time for anti-armor support. The M40A1 is more useful and economical than sophisticated hardware in the anti-personnel role and against built-up areas as counter ambush weapons and against machine gun nests. IWI has already assisted in the modernization of M40A1 in Chile, and a similar project could be implemented in Colombia, adapting laser telemetry, IR and thermo sights for use day-night-any-weather-any-time. In fact, the local industry could do it thorough Coctemar (autonomous shipyard consortium) and has already developed the Jeyur weapons systems. The Jeyur, named after a deadly Colombian scorpion, consists of a weapons pedestal containing the same sophisticated equipment mentioned above to direct and accurately fire, by remote control, heavy machine guns and grenade launchers in small riverine naval combatants in any weather or conditions.

The Infantry goes to combat in the new uniform in “pixel” camouflage, developed by the No.1 Quartermaster Battalion “Juanas” in “woodland” green and khaki desert tones. The uniform was first distributed along units of the X Division, Omega Task Force, Special Forces, commandos, counter-guerrilla and pipeline security units. All web gear is also designed and produced in country, and most soldiers appear to prefer the assault vest with two large breast pouches at each side.

Lanceros: Loyalty, Valor and Sacrifice for Colombia

Spearheading the government efforts are the Lanceros. The term refers to the Colombian Rangers, and its origins are found as part of a small unit raised in 1819, and a derivative of the word “spear” in Spanish. In 1959, the Colombian Army organized several Lancero Companies to take the fight to the jungle. These were re-organized into counter-insurgency platoons in 1966 with the purpose of making them more agile and flexible. As the demand for the Lanceros’ skills increased, these experts were assimilated into the new hunter, and counter-guerrilla battalions. The Lanceros were reintegrated once more around 2004 with the establishment of the reinforced battalion, known as Lancero Group (AGLAN); they live for loyalty to their superiors, comrades, subordinates, the institution, and the motherland; they demonstrates valor to deal with all the difficulties found in the field, and each Lancero sacrifices his needs for the benefit of the force. These three simple words define a Colombian Ranger.

The AGLAN, along with the BACOA (Commando Battalion), form the direct action forces of the Army Special Operations Command (COESE). In addition, this command also comprises the Army Special Commando (CEE), an anti-narcotic team, working along with the Army Intelligence Operations Center (CIME) and the Colombian Technical Intelligence Center (CITEC).

The Lanceros School (ESLAN) notoriety was earned as a result of producing one of the finest jungle fighters in the continent. Between 1955 and 2005, the school held 284 classes, producing 10,000-jungle experts; add a couple of thousand more by now. ESLAN was established by Decree No. 3155 on December 6, 1955, and was led by a group of officers who had attended and graduated from the US Ranger Course. The instructors adapted the techniques and tactics learned in the US to the Amazon jungle environment typical of Colombia, and thus evolved into one of the most prestigious counter-insurgency training establishments in South America.

Without a doubt, the most grueling part of the Lancero Course is the jungle class. This now takes place at the Amazon II Fort, with the three-day survival part of it taking place at Ronda Island, in the middle of the Amazon River. The jungle class takes two weeks, and it is the last of about two and one half months of intensive training designed to create motivated and well skilled leaders of small units ready to fight in any kind of terrain. In here they will learn that the guerrillas are likely to booby trap branches, so picking up fruits from the trees to eat during the duration of the class is forbidden. Therefore, the local cuisine calls for learning to eat the mojojoy (between other things) a worm found in the palm tree-trunks. It helps to mentally prepare for them by naming them “jungle shrimp” (if it sounds better, maybe it tastes better). The class will culminate with the “Death March” where the candidates will have to cover in full gear all 36 kms separating the Amazons II Fort from Leticia City. Those who make it receive the emblem typical of the Lanceros and the black beret.

A Lancero starts his training with a Preparatory Phase lasting two weeks. The candidate reviews field hygiene, communications, basic small arms, and planning. The phase is complemented with another class dedicated to developing resistance, evasion, escape, and survival skills (REES – in Spanish). Here the candidates prepares physically, tactically and mentally for the next phase.

The following phase is called Complementary Phase. The first three weeks of this phase are spent at the Lancero Training Center in Tolemaida, learning jungle warfare tactics, and a few days spend at Icononzo, Tolima, in platoon leadership skills. At the end of the 7th week, the class will move to the Jungle Training Center at Amazonas II Fort, where they will spend their last two weeks of training. Most elements of other elite forces have attended the Lancero training at one point or another.

AFEAU + AFEUR

The national intervention unit is the Antiterrorist Urban Special Forces Group (AFEAU), found under the Colombian Special Forces Command (CCOPE). The AFEAU was established in April 8, 1985, and it comprises four teams, each with 2 officers and 13 commandos selected from all four branches of the military (Army, Air Force, Navy and Police). The AFEUR, on the other hand, refers to twelve Army Urban Special Forces Groups distributed among the seven Army Divisions for local antiterrorist tasks. Given the name, there is considerable confusion between the AFEAU and the AFEUR, even in official documents. Each AFEUR is divided in six squads of 15 men. In addition, each brigade deploys a GAES, or Anti-Extortion and Anti-Kidnapping Special Group.

The Army Rural Special Forces Brigade (BRFER) deploys three Special Forces battalions (BFER2, BFER3 & BFER4), from Tolemaida, and also is associated to the FUDRA. This is the Rapid Reaction Force established on December 7, 1999, at Tolemaida Fort, with the 1st airmobile brigade (BRM01), BRM02 and BRM03. By 2008, the Army had organized 21 mobile brigades, each comprising 1,287 soldiers divided into 4 counter-guerrilla, one support and services and one headquarters battalions. There are several jungle brigades, such as the 22nd, 26th, 27th, 28th and the 43rd.

The Counter-Narcotics Special Forces Brigade (BRCNA) became active on May 14, 2000 and immediately deployed to Putumayo, and then to Larandia (Caquetá) to fight narco-guerrillas and drug runners. Today, the BRCNA deploys the following counter-narcotics battalions: BACNA1, BACNA2, and BACNA3, supported by BASCN (logistical support battalion), and all operating from Larandia. The BRCNA has been trained and equipped by USSF.

Starting on March 22, 2001, the Colombian Army deployed its first of seven or eight high mountain battalions, trained under the supervision of the British SAS. Each battalion aligns 30 officers, 566 soldiers, 193 specialist and NCOs and 7 civilians. Finally, as part of the Army element we mention the little known Matamoros Mechanized Group, X Armored Brigade, which corresponds to the desert commandos. The Group is based at La Flor, and operates in long range mobile patrols using motorcycles (called Scorpions), SOV Humvees, SOV Abir pickups, EE9 Fire Support vehicles and EE11 armored transports, patrolling an area of 11,000 square kilometers.

Other military elites

Since 2004, the Air Special Commando Group (ACOEA) provides base security and Csar support for the Air Force.

The Colombian Marine Corps is considered an elite element of the military, fielding one regular Marine and two river warfare brigades; however, the 1st Marine Special Forces Battalion (BFEIM) provides for dedicated special operations tasks. BFEIM operates from Cartagena, deploying counter-guerrilla battalions, two Nav Afeur and the Northern Naval Special Dive Unit (UBEN – Unidad de Buceos Especiales del Norte). Another specialized outfit little known outside Colombia is the Submarine Commando Group (Grupo de Comandos Submarinos), equivalent to the US Navy Seals, and charged with covert operations along the Colombian, and also any other, coastal area. Their main “toy” is the Chariot SDV. Three of these are operational, and are named Arc Defensora, Arc Poderosa and Arc Protectora. These vehicles allow two combat scuba divers to infiltrate enemy positions. Like the Seals, these commandos train in all sort of conditions, and have developed a number of techniques for interdiction, in-mobilization and boarding of go-fast boats. Each Unit comprises two officers and five Marine NCOs. The Navy does not release much information on how many Units form the Group, but it is known that the Submarine Commando School has graduated 23 operators since its recent establishment. These naval commandos operate in tandem with those men assigned to the Cosmos midget submarines operated by the Navy. They also have close ties with the Amphibious Commando Group, which would be the Colombian equivalent to a 100-strong Recon Company. The Group is divided in four platoons of 25 operators, and they are in charge of reconnaissance operations for the Colombian Marines. The Navy and its Reconnaissance and Assault Group (GREAS), trained by US and British commandos, are tasked with validating intelligence dealing with illicit fast boat operations and boarding operations.

(The Author is grateful for the assistance and cooperation received from the Assistance Integral Office of the Colombian Army, CAN.)

Every two years the beautiful city of Rio de Janeiro hosts the Latin American Aero & Defense fair (LAAD). This year, the event combined the tri-service military show and the new Homeland Security Sector. Personnel from all armed forces, law enforcement and other security services attended LAAD. The fair highlights defense industry sectors showing growth potential in the region, homeland security, and equipment for use by armed forces on peacekeeping missions; such as personal protective equipment (helmets, flak jackets, shields, etc.), less-than-lethal weapons, and other systems for defense and security (law enforcement & homeland security).

It was not surprising to find a healthy small arms industry represented at LAAD. The Small Arms Factory from India displayed several of its products, including its own assault rifle, MAG and Carl Gustav weapons. FN displayed all its superb small arms products. Denel had some very interesting tools at hand; although this year we did not find the NTW-20. Rippel had a whole spectrum of sniper rifles in diverse calibers, along with Milkor. The Kalashnikov was also present in several exhibits from diverse countries that produce it under various designations.

The Indústria de Material Bélico do Brasil (IMBEL) is the soul of the small arms production effort in Brazil, commencing with pistol manufacturing that ranges from .45 and .40 calibers to the 9mm and .380 models, all in the traditional Colt lines. IMBEL has produced the Madsen m/46 in .45 caliber for the armed forces. The services have also taken delivery of the INA 953 SMG in .45 caliber, which is a modified Madsen m/46 with the bolt handle moved to the right side, and other improvements of the extractor and the ejector. The weapon weighs 7 lbs. 8 oz., and is fed by a 30-round magazine. The INA 953 differs very little externally from the Danish m/46, sporting the same folding wire stock and nut barrel. The standard Army rifle is the locally produced IMBEL LAR, which is simply the FN-FAL in caliber 7.62mm built under license as the M964. The LAR differs little from the Belgian model, a gas operated weapon using a tilting bolt mechanism.

The Army Technology Center (CTEX) gave us a look into the locally developed thermal sight riflescope designed for use with assault rifles or machine guns. Members of CTEX tells us that the equipment collects infrared radiation generated by heat-emitting objects, allowing night and day target sighting even in areas filled with smoke, dust or fog. The riflescope weights 1.5 kg and has a fitting compatible with MIL-STD 1913 rails. The spectra band is 8-12µm and 320×240 microbolometer. The electromagnetic compatibility is to the MIL-STD 461.

The CTEX riflescope was mounted on a MD97D mockup. This rifle traces its lineage to the IMBEL MD-1 assault rifle first developed in 1983 in 5.56mm caliber. The MD-2 model came out in 1985 and entered service in limited numbers with the Brazilian Army. These designations have been a little confusing since a locally developed submachine gun in 9mm was also designated MD-1.

The MD-2 started as a simplified variant of the LAR (Brazilian made FAL) with a few features taken from the M16. The MD-3 refers to the MD-2 equipped with a folding stock, made of plastic. The MD-2 has been replaced in production by the MD97. This newer rifle does away with the tilting block locking system of the FAL, using instead a multi-lug, rotary-bolt type. The Model 97 L was adopted in 2000 by selected Army units, and the Model LC went to the 1st Special Forces Battalion for covert operations. The MD97L operates from the familiar gas piston system. It is equipped with a folding stock for use in close quarters fighting in urban situations, and the like. It uses standard US M16 magazines and compatible large capacity drums. The body of the weapon is made from aluminum to reduce the overall weight of the weapon. The weapon fires both 3-round bursts as well as full automatic and comes in a carbine sized variant as well known as the MD97LC.

Taurus is another successful Brazilian small arms industry, and it was also prominently present at LAAD with its line of pistols and carbines. The company displayed examples of its extensive line of police products, including the Taurus-FAMAE submachine gun. This SMG comes in two variants: the MT40, and the MT9. Since the SMG is optimized for police use, the MT40 is chambered in .40 caliber and the MT9 in 9mm, and it is no other than the SAF SMG. The firing cycle is rated to a high 1,200 rpm. The Taurus-FAMAE fires from the closed bolt, and is based on components of the SIG 540 series. It uses the blowback system and an unlocked bolt. A main difference between those examples produced in Brazil and those from Chile is the folding buttstock. The Brazilians prefer the FAL style model. The Taurus products have been very successful within the various local police departments.

The company also produces the CT40 and CT30 Carbines. These are variants of the SMGs mentioned above. The CT40 uses a 410 mm barrel, measuring 890 mm with butt extended and 630 mm with butt folded. The CT30 is a neat little weapon that uses the same 15 and 30-round magazines of the US M1 and M2 carbines. The barrel measures 260 mm in length and the weapon measures a handy 785 mm with stock fully extended and 535 mm with butt folded.