Since November 2006, the inhabitants of El Ocotal, Nueva Segovia, reported a small aircraft and a helicopter flying at low level along the regions of Santa María, San Fernando, Jalapa, Condega and Somoto. The local police chief, Commissioned Héctor Zelaya, acknowledged awareness of unauthorized and unidentified flights taking place from around the community – particularly at night. Lacking the appropriate air assets to intercept the suspects, the government dispatched Army and Police foot patrols to search for clandestine landing strips being used by the intruders in the area. The troops pushed towards the region of Las Camelias, in the San Fernando Mountains close to Honduras.

PNN – National Police

Unfortunately this is a common occurrence in Central America, where the drug traffic has intensified. A month after the mentioned incident in El Ocotal, the Anti-Narcotics Police had intercepted a small launch some 56km from Managua, along the Pacific Ocean, finding some two tons of cocaine in its interior.

The Nicaraguan National Police dedicates considerable resources to fighting the drug traffic, kidnapping rings, and money laundering. Since 2006, the Nicaraguan National Police (PNN) is under the command of First Commissioned Aminta Elena Granera Sacasa, appointed by the previous President Enrique Bolaños Geyer to replace PC Edwin Cordero Ardila. To have a better understanding of the Nicaraguan National Police, this author visited Major Commissioner Aquiles Alonso Sevilla Midence at his PNN Public Relations office at the Main HQ at Plaza del Sol in Managua, who cordially welcomed and provided us with the requested information.

According to the National Census, Nicaragua has some 5,142,098 citizens, which would suggests that the country maintains one of the smallest police institutions in the region. By 2005, the PNN counted with some 8,666 agents, but by the following year, the First Commissioner listed 12,300 professional and reserve officers. These elements derive from a General Directorate, and are distributed between 26 police divisions, including the DAEM, DOEP, INTERPOL, Police Intelligence, Drugs Investigations, and Public Security. The PNN operates from precincts (delegaciones), sub-precincts (sub-delegaciones), police sectors and posts. The precincts are located at Matagalpa, Managua, León, Chinandega, Estelí, Madriz, Nueva Segovia, Carazo, Granada, Masaya, Rivas, Boaco, Chontales, Jinotega, Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte (RAAN), Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur (RAAS), Río San Juan, Zelaya Central and Triangulo Minero.

A Development and Modernization Program was implemented in 2001, and the first phase was completed in 2005. This program had its basis on the 1995 Constitutional Reform-Law 228, which dictated the Police Model Regulations, and other necessary documents. In 2002, Disposition 032/02 reorganized the National Police Criminal Investigations Division into a Support Police (Auxilio Policial) and Police Intelligence (Inteligencia Policial) divisions.

The PNN has received considerable support from the European Union, particularly from the Spanish International Cooperation AECI. Spain has dispatched several missions who have assisted in the establishment of the Criminal Lab, and training an equipment of the Immediate Reaction Group (GIR). The Swedish ASDI has provided funds for the construction of 22 police installations, and equipment. The list of benefactors includes the German GTZ, British DFID, Save the Children (Sweden), UNFPA, BID, International Plan, and the Danish DANINA. The China-Taiwan Agency has provided considerable assistance along with JICA-Japan and PNUD-Japan. It is of particular interest that although the locals have suffered numerous wars and huge quantities of weapons remain in civilian hands, the country does not report the same problems with the brutal gangs (Maras) that distinguish the neighbors. It also reports fewer problems with kidnapping rings than other, more prosperous, regional countries.

However, the huge quantities of war-material in the streets has resulted in the establishment the Dirección de Armas, Explosivos, y Municiones (DAEM – Arms-Explosives and Ammunitions Directorate). A bust in 2005 highlight the problem: the PNN confiscated 21 rockets, 462 boxes of Nitroglycerine, seven RPG-7s, 1,802 explosives, two G3 rifles, one Galil, 225 AKMs, eight pistols, three machine guns, 188 other small arms and others in a single raid.

TAPIR, on the other hand, refers to Tácticas y Armas Policiales de Intervención y Rescate – the PNN’s SWAT team – under the DOEP command. The Tapirs are trained by the Army’s COE (Comando de Operaciones Especiales). The unit deploys in pairs, with four operators forming a Team, and several Teams forming patrols and detachments. The organization includes a combat swimmers unit, and their main small arms consists of Uzi and Mini-Uzi SMGs, along with Macro-Galil and Micro-Galil rifles for close quarters operations, and AKM rifles for more conventional operations.

Until recently, the Police Special Operations Direction (DOEP – Dirección de Operaciones Especiales Policiales) comprises the mentioned TAPIR group, the Special Brigade in charge of crown control and physical support, the K9 Unit, the Embassy and Objectives Detail (Departamento de Protección de Embajadas y Objetivos) Operations Department, the Rapid Reaction Group (GIR – Grupo de Intervención Rápida), and two support offices.

Many of those police units that I was able to observe in Nicaragua patrol the city on extended cab pickup trucks, and indeed the PNN has received some 420 examples by 2006. By comparison, there were 122 patrol cruisers and 804 motorcycles during the same year. By 2003, the PNN had an arsenal consisting of 2,229 pistols; this had increased by 2006 to 4,795 handguns, including 2,566 models acquired during 2004 and 2005. In regards to rifles and shotguns, the PNN listed 3,795 models by June 2006. Small arms totaled 8,590. Most weapons I was able to observed were AKM-S rifles (many of them were the North Korean Type-68), with metallic folding stock. The PNN operates some three Cigarette-type speedboats and a few other launches.

PNN agents must attend and complete their initial training at the Walter Mendoza Martinez Police Academy (ACAPOL), established under Police Law No.228, of 31 July 1996, published on August 23. French advisers have trained the Special Brigade elements, while Spanish advisers have assisted the GIR and the TAPIR. The Nicaraguan police commandos are ready to go anywhere, and at anytime, to accomplish their tasks, responding to the Ministry of Government (Interior).

Army Commandos

With the implementation of the Free Trade Agreement, the Central American governments have agreed to organize a Rapid Reaction Force tasked to fight the drug traffic and international terrorism. It is expected that Nicaragua will dedicate some 600 members of the Army Special Forces Command, Antiterrorist Units, the Air and Naval Forces, and Military Intelligence.

When I first visited the Army’s Special Forces Command nest at the vicinity of the Xiloa Lagoon, the unit was the responsibility of Lt. Col. Rafael Ramírez Gomes. The COE was tasked as the main element of the SAR and Humanitarian Unit, which demanded a deployment within 35 minutes from any alert. This Comando de Operaciones Especiales (C.O.E.) comprises some 600 highly motivated and trained men. Upon arrival we are met by then major and today commander Lt. Col., Manuel Salvador Gaitán, and Cpt. Matamoros, two warriors trained by European Special Forces. They would escort me deep into the base. The first time I came face to face with the Nicaraguan commandos had been long ago, when attending the change of command of the Gral. Humberto Ortega to General Joaquín Cuadra Lacayo, outside Managua. The Nicaraguan Army has always opened its doors to us, allowing several visits to the country and institutions. US forces had the opportunity to work alongside a platoon of these commandos when they formed part of the Chavalo Task Force, attached to the Spanish Plus Ultra Brigade in Iraq.

During the 2nd Civil War between the Sandinistas and the Contras in the 80s, and as a result of the military experience, the Army organized the Batallones de Lucha irregular (BLI). They were trained in airborne techniques, jungle warfare and led by Cuban or Chilean advisers. By 1985, the EPS fielded 13 such units: BLI Simon Bolivar, BIL Coro de Angeles, BLI Ramon Raudales, BLI German Pomares, BLI Juan Pablo Umanzor, BLI Santos Lopez, BLI Miguel Angel Ortez, BLI Farabundo Marti, BLI Sucrates Sandino, BLI Francisco Estrada, BLI Pedro Altamirano, BLI Juan Gregorio Colindres and BLI Rufo Marin. Each of these battalions fielded 700 men equipped with AKM rifles, SVD precision rifles, RPD and RPK machine guns, backed by Soviet 60mm, 82mm and 120mm mortars and AGS-17 grenade launchers. SShK 38/46 12.7mm heavy machine guns were mounted on vehicles and helicopters. Complementing the BLIs were small Light Hunter Battalions (Batallones Ligeros de Cazadores – BLC). They were to operate much in the same manner as Venezuelan hunter battalions, or 250 men divided in two companies. Their mission was to find the enemy and to fix their position so the BLIs then would come to destroy them with their superior firepower and mobility. There were 19 BLC, including the BLC Rigoberto Cruz, BLC Gaspar Garcia Laviana, BLC Oscar Benavides, BLC Modesto Duarte, BLC Edgar Munguía and BLC Adam Gomez.

The Contras operated in small battalion-size “task forces,” small-company size “detachments,” and squad size “groups.” These were effective in tying up thousands of troops and destroying the economy. For good measure, the Sandinista government claimed dictatorial powers and established rough and brutal repression, only feeding the Contra ranks. Furthermore, within a brief time after taking over, the FSLN government was pursuing radical economic and social policies at home and building up military strength with the support of the Soviet Bloc. The government also started involving itself on behalf of local and Marxist guerrilla movements in neighboring El Salvador and Guatemala.

Following Cuban and Soviet doctrine on highly mobile (but heavy) armored formations for forced reconnaissance tasks and as spearhead breakthrough forces, the EPS established the elite Brigada de Tropas “Pedro Altamirano.” Geographically the country divides into three regions. The largest in extent is the triangular mountain region, which occupies the center of the country, to the east of Lake Nicaragua and north of the frontier with Costa Rica. A broad strip of lowland runs north-south, roughly parallel with the Caribbean coast. Another much narrower strip of lowland contains two large lakes, Lake Managua and Lake Nicaragua. The country is mountainous, although not to the extent of some Central American Republics, with peaks as high as 2,000 meters. With the war against counterrevolutionaries coming from Honduras and Costa Rica, the Pedro Altamirano troops had to be ready to fight in any terrain; and they were trained in parachute and reconnaissance techniques at El Cacho, Pinar del Río (Cuba).

However, they remained mechanized, equipped with PT-76 light tanks, BTR-60 APCs, and BRDM armored vehicles, inappropriate for use in the densely-forested mountains. Even so, the Contras managed to destroy only two BRDMs throughout the war. They were ambushed in one of the mountain roads, with the rebels firing dozens of AP 40mm grenades from M79 launchers. The Contras had positions in elevations overlooking the road, and the rounds landed on the lightly protected roof of the BRDMs. Later, the Nicaraguan Spec Ops would adopt the M79 grenade launcher as one of their favorite weapons, many coming from former-National Guard warehouses, and large catches captured to the Contras.

One of the flaws on the use of the Altamirano Brigade was that the Air Force lacked the heavy air transport aircraft necessary for true airborne movement of the heavy equipment. The Army realized that there was a need for something lighter and highly mobile, and with the capacity of taking the fight to the enemy anywhere in the hills. Around 1985, the military decided to include special operations units as part of its order of battle (Orbat). With troops from the Pedro Altamirano brigade and volunteers from the Ministry of the Interior’s (MINIT) Permanent Territorial Companies (COPETE) the Army organized the first Pequeñas Unidades de Fuerzas Especiales (PUFE – Small Special Forces Units).

A PUFE fielded 63 commandos, all trained at El Cacho in Cuba. A year later, the military had increased the PUFEs to three units, forming the first Compañía de Destino Especial (CODE – Special Destiny Company). Soon after, the Batallón de Fuerzas Especiales “Julio Buitrago Urróz” had been organized with three CODEs. By 1986, the CODEs were re-dominated Destacamentos (Detachments), and all the special operations forces were housed at Asturias.

The Spec Ops HQ was moved to Chiltepe, Managua, in 1987, and starting in 1988, the PUFE-BON Julio Buitrago Urroz became the premier tactical unit of the military, adding a reconnaissance, a submarine and an air assault detachment to the three special operations detachments of the order of battle.

With the Pedro Altamirano Recce Armored Brigade, the BLIs, BLCs, and the CODEs from the EPS and the MINIT’s COPETEs and Border Guards, the Sandinista High Command decided to finish up the Contras once and for all. “Operación Soberanía” was launched along the Costa Rican border against ARDE guerrillas. Spearheading the offensive were the PUFEs of the Buitrago Urroz Battalion and two submarine exploration nucleus from the Pedro Altamirano Brigade.

ARDE, originally led (or misled) by Eden Pastora, had been infiltrated by Sandinista intelligence operatives, and was in disarray due to internal fights. The Sandinista conventional operation – complemented by special operations actions in the rear, and well inside Costa Rica – disarticulated ARDE.

Trying to repeat the same success than Sovereignty, the EPS launched some 10,000 men in “Operación Danto” in March 1988. Danto had as a target the guerrilla camps across the Honduran border. Again COPETEs, BLIs, BLCs, CODE/PUFEs spearheaded the assault. The camps were overrun, and the Contra guerrillas desperately fought back from well inside Honduran territory. The Honduran responded with air support for the guerrillas, and after a few days, reluctantly accepted the US offer to heli-transport troops to the region. There seem to have been a consensus by the Hondurans that the Sandinistas were just taking care of national business by attacking the Contra Camps, even inside their own territory. Eventually, Danto would come to a halt after some Mi-8s had been lost to the Hondurans, and after the US threatened to deploy the 82nd Airborne Division.

As the war came to an end in 1990, the 13 BLIs were reduced to 13 security companies, and the hunter battalions disbanded, the artillery, tank and mechanized brigades were reduced to a single entity.

C.O.E.

Although the Soviet Union passed into discredited oblivion soon after the dismissal of the Sandinista government, Cuban assistance, particularly for the military, continued until about 1994. Eventually, all assistance from the former Communist Block countries dried up. No positive efforts were initially made to fill the philosophical vacuum left by Nicaragua’s former role models. However, more recent statements and documents, especially in connection with the armed forces, indicate the apparent beginning of an effort to forge a new doctrine more appropriate to present political circumstances and the situation of the country.

Soon after the end of hostilities in 1990, Spec Ops were re-organized in two SF battalions directly under the control of the EPS General Command (Comandancia). The 1st PUFE-BON Buitrago listed the 11th Detachment (DOE-Destacamento de Operaciones Especiales), 12th DOE & 13th DOE as part of its TOE. The 2nd PUFE-BON Altamirano comprised the 21st DOE, 22nd DOE and 23rd DOE. The 2nd PUFE-BON Altamirano was a heavier entity, counting on PT-76 and BRDMs for its operations. Ironically, with the end of the war, the armored assets recovered their importance and elite status due to the new emphasis of the Armed Forces.

Between 1992 and 1995, the Army went through the peace demobilization process. The Comando de Operaciones Especiales (COE) is established in 1995 as well, and housed in the vicinity of Xiloa Lagoon, close to Managua. The COE was first organized with four Special Operations Detachments (DOES), and a Fire Support Unit. Today, the COE comprises a Support Apparatus, and three Departments: Command, PPUU (Pequeñas Unidades – Small Combat Units), and Security Element. The Pequeñas Unidades de Combate comprises three Special Operations Detachments (1st, 2nd and 3rd DOES), an Anti-Tank Detachment, and a Defense & Fire Support Detachment. Each DOES is divided in binomios (pairs), Equipos (each 5-man), Grupos (each 4 Operational Groups and a Command Team), and Destacamentos (4 Operational and a Command Groups). The COE also deploys one Special Operations Platoon in support of the Northern Military Detachment.

Other Elites

The Air Force handles today a single Compañía de Paracaidistas (Paratrooper Company), comprising some 120 elements divided into a Search and Rescue Detachment, and an Air Special Operations Detachment. The unit has received specialty training by French commandos and Naval Infantry at Martinica.

It is now known that Major Anastasio Somoza Portocarrero’s EEBI prepared the Primera Compañía de Infantería de Marina (1st Marine Company), and the unit was forged by fire in the closing days of the Somoza’s Regimen. The first Naval Infantry units of the modern Nicaraguan military were basically established within the Ministry of the Interior’s (MINIT) Border Guard Troops in the early 1980s. Eventually, the Nicaraguan Sandinista Army would establish several infantry outfits attached to the Naval Force. Today, there is a fusiliers company operating from San Juan del Sur, as part of the local Port Authority; there are also two additional companies assigned to the Naval Regions at the Pacific and the Atlantic, and some detachments assigned to the Northern and Southern Military Detachments. It is specified that these outfits operate in the installation security role and not properly as amphibious units.

There are several issues that afflict the Nicaraguan National Security today, between them elicit weapons, human and drug traffic. The PNN’s Justice Support (DAJ-Auxilio Judicial), the Anti-Narcotics, Financial Investigations (DIE-Investigaciones Económicas), INTERPOL, and the Central Criminal Lab (LCC-Laboratorio Central de Criminalística) divisions coordinate with other 12 Central American Law Enforcement Regional Plan components to fight contraband, drug traffic, money laundering, kidnappings, and other organized crime activities. According to statistics provided by the PNN, the war has netted 6,614 operations between 2000 and 2005, resulting in the seizure of 22,247kgs of cocaine, along with 588,533 marihuana plants and 279.82kgs of heroine.

All this demonstrates that elite outfits of the Ministry of Government’s National Police and the National Army’s elite forces are spearheading the fight against the drug traffic and organized crime anytime and anywhere in Nicaragua.

The Ivema Bochica Gun Truck

The explosion shook the crew violently as their vehicle staggered heavily from side to side. Minutes after the explosion the occupants, all unharmed and without wounds, exited the vehicle. The Bochica had been damaged by a mine, which had been detonated to the right and not directly underneath the machine. Although there were components that had been bent and torn by the explosion, the Bochica was repaired in just a short time, allowing it to continue its task. This was not an attack of the narco-guerrilla but rather a test of the Gila APC developed by the International Vehicle & Equipment Marketing (Ivema) from South Africa. André Mouton, the company’s Director of Operations, tells us that although the Gila follows the typical silhouette and “V” floor of the Casspir, it is actually a new vehicle built under the specifications established by the Colombian Army. Once in Colombia for testing, the vehicle received the name of Bochica, and was put to the test.

The designer of the project and representatives of Ivema insisted that the tests of explosives were carried out with crew complement to demonstrate not only the capacities of the vehicle cross-country, but also the high level of protection provided. This meant a Colombian Special Forces motorized squad in its interior. The Colombian Army actually received a handful of the APCs to test in country. André Mouton explains the details of the machine, pointing that the Gila is wider than the Casspir, measuring 6,390mm in length, 2,500mm width, 2,750mm height, and 3,800mm base. These dimensions translated into added and improved comfort to the crew, but also in greater stability. The vehicle fits perfectly inside the C130, facilitating deployment.

Another consideration, especially useful for export and international deployment, is that the vehicle is modified from left to right side driving without any mayor structural change. The vehicle is already set for driving one way or another by simply switching the steering wheel from left to right and vice versa by unplugging and plugging back some components. Time was taken to introduce other mechanical improvements and increase the level of protection against explosions and mines, which now exceeds NATO standards (4569 Stanag Level 4). The new vehicle has a combat weight of 9,720kg, with a payload of 2,280 @ 12,000 (13.600kg margin), and a gross weight of 12,000kg. The Gila was ready in May of 2006. Mouton tells us that the Colombians requested a purely transport variant with the crew seating facing each other and with an interior space for a crew of 2 and 9 motorized infantrymen. One of the consequences was that interior space available for equipment was reduced. The turret was specified to be simple and limited to a single heavy machine gun, having a traverse of 360 degrees. The mechanical components were placed in modular form and those more delicate implements were placed within the protective armor. The modules allow the adaptation of a number of details. The originally selected engine is the Mercedes-Benz Euro-3 turbocharged diesel 4800cc, developing 215hp (160kw), with a maximum torque of 780 Nm @ 1200-1800 rpm. Although the engine is a 4 cylinder model, it produces more force and is much more efficient and reliable than the V8 used in the Casspir. Another advantage of this particular engine is its easy availability on the commercial market in South Africa as well as in Colombia, and most countries of the world. The Mercedes Euro-3 pushes the vehicle to a maximum speed of 105km/h, and allowing it to surpass gradients of 60 degrees. The 28V electrical system depends from a 100 Amp alternator.

Mouton also gave us a look of a mock up of a Gila modified to Brazilian Federal Police Department (DPF) requirements. The DPF prefers a combat infantry variant, with back-to-back seats to allow the use of firing ports by the mounted squad. The turret is fixed, but equipped with viewfinders and four small firing ports for the use of small arms from the interior. The DPF model has been equipped with protective shields that fold over the frontal bulletproof glass windows. Each vehicle costs about USD $400,000. On the other hand, 23 overhauled Casspirs were sold to Peru, with 20 going to the Police and 3 to the Naval Infantry.

Ivema tells us that the tests were successful in Colombia, but was not clear if additional machines were ordered. Then in April, Ivema announced the first order of 12 Gilas by an undisclosed African customer.

The Brazilian government must rely on a number of crack military units to maintain control of its borders. Realizing that Brazil could be an open door to international and local terrorists, the military has organized outfits able to deal with such threats and protect the State. This has resulted in one of the most efficient armies in Latin America, and yet one of the least known outside the region. The Army fields several brigades, to include 1 Parachute, 1 Spec Ops, 1 Air Assault Light Infantry, 1 light infantry for peacekeeping Ops and Urban Warfare, 1 Frontier, 2 armored, 4 mechanized, 5 jungle, 10 motorized, 4 divisional artillery, 2 construction engineer, 1 air defense, and 1 army aviation.

Small arms include M964 and variants (Imbel FAL), Imbel MD2 & MD97 rifles. Special operators make intensive use of the M4 carbine along with FAMAS, G3A3 and G3SG1 rifles. Taurus is now distributing the Tavor TAR-21 to the Frontier Bde. Submachine guns include the Taurus M972 (Beretta M-12), and the MP5 range. Snipers have access to the Barrett M82A1, HK PSG-1, M700 and ACGL rifles. Elite outfits use the HK21E and the Minimi-Para Mk-2. The MAG 60-20 is distributed to all the services.

Light Infantry

Due to the nature of the country, which is covered in most part by the dense Amazonian rain forest, many of the military units are trained and geared for jungle warfare. The Centro de Instrução de Guerra na Selva (Selva – CIGS) operates from Manaus, sharing installations with the Amazon’s Military Command (Comando Militar da Amazônia). The Center prepares leaders in the conduction of small unit tactics. The Jungle Warfare Training develops in three phases: Jungle Survival, Skill Development, and Jungle Operations.

The Jungle Warfare Training Center prepares operators for the jungle, hunter, and frontier infantry outfits. These are particularly adapted and skilled to operate in the Amazon’s environment. The Jungle Infantry units include the 1ª Brigada de Infantaria de Selva (Bda.IS) also known as Brigada Lobo D’Almada, the 2nd Bda.IS or Brigada Ararigbóia, the 7th Bda.IS, the 10th Bda.IS, the 16th Bda.IS, the 17th Bda.IS or Brigada Príncipe da Beira, and the 23rd Bda.IS.

There are several other outfits that appear to operate independently from the brigade structure, including the 1st Jungle Infantry Battalion (1º Batalhão de Infantaria de Selva [BIS]- Batalhão Amazonas), the 2º BIS – Batalhão Pedro Teixeira, the 4º BIS – Batalhão Plácido de Castro and the 8º BIS.

The Jungle Brigades and Battalions deploy in Destacamentos de Operações de Selva (DOS), which are small 12-men units providing long distance reconnaissance, surveillance and patrols along the borders. The DOS are inspired in their training, organization and doctrine on the A Teams of the USSF, with two officers and 10 enlisted NCOs. The preferred weapons include the legendary Para-FAL, and MAG MGs.

The Hunter Battalions include the 19º Batalhão de Caçadores (BC), the 23rd BC, the 24th BC, the 25th BC, and the 28th BC.

The light infantry also lists the Frontier Guard Command, which operates from Amapá, and the 18th Frontier Infantry Brigade, operating from Mato Grosso. In the same State of Mato Grosso we find the 2nd and 17th Frontier Infantry Battalions. In addition, Special Frontier Platoons have been established to monitor the frontier; each PFE is formed with 50 men.

The very harsh Caatinga Region is home of the elite 72° Batalhão de Infantaria Motorizado (or 72° BIMtz), better known as Batalhão General Victorino Carneiro Monteiro. Its HQ is at Petrolina, Pernambuco, having its origins with the 2nd Riflemen Company/35th Inf Bn. (Feira de Santana)/10th Motorized Infantry Brigade. The company operated independently as a specialized outfit since 1975. It became the elite 72° BIMtz in 1982, when the Army realized the need for a larger unit to operate in this vast and difficult area. The battalion deployed to Angola as part of the UN forces between September 1995 and April 1996.

Mountain warfare is the dominium of the 11o Batalhão de Infantaria de Montanha (11o BI Mth), from São João Del Rei, Minas Gerais. The lineage of the 11th Mountain Battalion can be traced to 1888, with the establishment of the 28o BI PARDO – RS, as part of the so-called “Canudos” campaign.

Parachute Force

The Vila Militar de Rio de Janeiro holds the colors of the Parachute Infantry Brigade (Brigada de Infantaria Pára-quedistado Exército Brasileiro). The Paras, along with the Air Assault Brigade, is part of the Rapid Action Force (Força de Ação Rápida). Its tasks include tracking, pursuing and apprehending dangerous criminals, poachers and smugglers.

The Parachute Brigade has its origins within the Parachute School established on December 26, 1945. A year before, the government had dispatched 47 soldiers for airborne training in the United States. By 1953 there was a pressing need to establish what was denominated Nucleus of the Airborne Division. By 1969 the Army decided to emphasize smaller, more mobile units, and replaced the Division with the Parachute Brigade in 1971, and this is renamed the Parachute Infantry Brigade in 1985.

Today, the Para Brigade comprises a HHC Company, the 25th Batalhão de Infantaria Pára-quedistas (BIP-Infantry Parachute Battalion), 26th BIP, and 27th BIP, supported by a Pathfinders Company (20ª Companhia de Presursores Pára-quedistas), a Support and maintenance Parachute Battalion (Batalhão de Dobragem, Manuntenção de Pára-quedas e Suprimento pelo Ar), a Field Artillery Battery, and an AAA Battery. There is also a Cavalry Reconnaissance Unit assigned to this outfit, and other support elements.

The 25th Batalhão de Infantaria Pára-quedistas (BIP-Infantry Parachute Battalion) – or 25o BI Pqdt as it is known in Brazil – has its origins with the School Infantry Company raised on 26 December 1945, as part of the Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment at Colina Longa, Deodoro, Rio de Janeiro. Then, on September 5, 1952, the Army expanded the unit to become Airborne Infantry Battalion (Batalhão de Infantaria Aeroterrestre), and in October of 1956 the unit is named the Batalhão Santos Dumont, and in 1961 this becomes the Santos Dumont Regiment. This unit becomes the 3rd Parachute Infantry Battalion, but by November 7, 1973, it becomes the 25th Parachute Infantry Battalion, with three Parachute Riflemen companies (1ª, 2ª & 3ª Companhias de Fuzileiros Pára-quedistas), a Command and Services Company, and a HHC group.

The 26o BI Pqdt and the 27º BI Pqdt. also trace their lineage to Decree Nr 49.863, dated January 11, 1961, establishing the Regimento Santos Dumont. The 26th and 27th Parachute Infantry Battalions are officially established in 1973. The 27º BI Pqdt is based at Sâo Goçnaho.

The 1º Esquadrão de Cavalaria Pára-quedista (1st Parachute Cavalry Squadron) is established on December 21, 1981, with Celso Carlos Antunes as its first commander. According to the Brazilian Army, the unit is today equipped with locally-built Jaracara armored reconnaissance vehicles. In 1993, the Parachute Cavalry expands with the 2nd Parachute Cavalry Platoon. By late-2005, the unit counts with 3 platoons (Pelotões de Cavalaria Pára-quedista), an Administrative Base, and a Command Platoon to meet its tasks.

The 20th Parachute Logistical Battalion remains as the main support unit of the brigade.

Air Assault

The 12ª Brigada de Infantaria Leve (Aeromóvel), from Caçapava, São Paulo, is tasked with air assault and airmobile tasks. The lineage of the unit can be traced to the establishment of the 4th Infantry Brigade in June 1919 around São Paulo. The 4th Inf. Bde. receives several transformations, and in 1971 it becomes the 12th Infantry Brigade assigned to the 2nd Army Division. In 1987 the unit transforms into the 12th Motorized Infantry Brigade, and on June 19, 1995, under Ministerial Order No.023, it becomes the 12th Light Infantry Brigade (Airmobile) from Caçapava.

The Brigade is optimized for air assault, infiltration (air, land and sea), and urban combat. To accomplish its missions, the Brigade depends on the helicopter as a principal means of movement, so it works closely with the 1º Grupo de Aviação do Exército (1st Army Aviation Group). Its subordinated units include the 5th, 6th and 39th Light Infantry Battalions or BILs (Batalhão de Infantaria Leve), the 20th Light Artillery Group, and the 22nd Light Logistical Battalion.

The 5th Batalhão de Infantaria Leve – Regimento Itororó, traces its origins to the 5th Infantry Regiment established in June 1908, with the 13th and 14th Infantry Battalions. The unit transformed throughout the years, until the 2nd of June of 1992, when under Ministerial Order No.030 it became the 5º Batalhão de Infantaria Leve.

The 6th BIL also traces its lineage to several battalions raised in 1908 (16th, 7th and 18th). It became the 6º Batalhão de Infantaria Leve under Ministerial Order No.024, in June 1995. In June 1995, under Ministerial Order No.025, the Army officially adds the 39th Light Infantry Battalion to the 12th Light Infantry Brigade (Airborne), along with the 20º Grupo de Artilharia de Campanha Leve (20 GAC L) (Ministerial Order No.026).

Special Operations Brigade

The Brazilian government started its first CT unit in 1953, with the Ministry of Aviation establishing its own anti-hijacking unit. Out of this, the military started the Talon Project, a 13-week course to prepare all new commandos.

Today, the Air Force (FAB) has the Aeronautical Center of Ground Operations (TO QUOPTE) subordinated to the General Air Operations Command (COMGAR), and comprising the BINFAE-CO (Canoas Special Aeronautics Infantry Battalion). This outfit was established in 2002. One of its units, the 1st CAAAD is equipped with 9K38 Igla Manpads. There is one squadron dedicated to combat search and rescue. In addition, the FAB deploys what it calls the Special Aeronautical Infantry – much like the RAF Regiment – in charge of protecting FAB installations and closely associated to airborne operations. The Batalhão de Infantaria da Aeronáutica Especial deploys units at Dos Afonsos (BINFAE-AF), Brasilia (BINFAE-BR), Canoas (BINFAE-CO), Galeão (BINFAE-GL), Manaus (BINFAE-MN), Recife (BINFAE-RF) and Río de Janeiro (BINFAE-RJ). The TO QUOPTE is complemented with the CSAR unit capability. All these units are equipped with the SIG-550 as their standard weapon.

The Army, on the other hand, depends on its own Special Operations Brigade (Brigada de Operações Especiais), comprising an Administrative Base, the 3ª Companhia de Forças Especiais (Pára-quedista) with base at Manaus, the Special Operations Training Center (Centro de Instrução de Operações Especiais), the NBC Company (Companhia de Defesa Química, Biológica e Nuclear), the 1º Batalhão de Forças Especiais (Pára-quedista), the Destacamento de Operações Psicológicas and the 1º Batalhão de Ações de Comandos (Pára-quedista).

The Brigade was activated in 2004 at Rio de Janeiro. It lists more than 2,000 men ready to deploy anywhere in Brazil within 6 hours notice. There is a small detachment directly subordinated to the President for immediate action. The Brigade has been relocated from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Genoveva, Goiânia, so it can be closer to the Capital, Brasília, and consequently to the Anápolis Air Base and the Santa Genoveva airport.

The nucleuses of the Brazilian Special Forces teams are the DOFE and the DAC. The Destacamento Operacional de Forças Especiais is in charge of reconnaissance. These commandos are experts in infiltration and extraction techniques. The actual raid or hit is carried by the DAC (for Destacamento de Ação de Comandos). Each of these detachments comprises between 12 and 14 men, with 4 officers forming a command element, and four or more “duplas” forming the tactical element. Each dupla consists of two NCOs

Spec Ops Battalion

The Brazilian Spec Ops reorganized under Project Talon, for an emphasis in counter-terrorism. A CT team under this name is said to be operational from volunteers coming from airborne or special operations units, who attend a 14-day selection before attending a 13-week CT-CQB specialization. What is well known and established is that the 1st Special Forces Battalion (1º Batalhão Operações Especiais) has gained considerable reputation as one of the best intervention units in Latin America. A high degree of preparation in urban warfare and intervention is required in order to enter and to bring order to the shantytowns of the big Brazilian cities (the fabelas), which are among the most dangerous in the world. Therefore, the Battalion has been called in on several opportunities to lend a hand to the police. This is not your usual police beat. One of the police patrols was observed exchanging fire with the tugs using M16 rifles and an elderly Madsen machine gun.

The origins of the Brazilian Spec Ops can be traced to a search and rescue parachute unit that was established in 1953. The first SF course was established in 1957, and evolved with its own doctrine and tactics through the years. The 500 strong 1st Special Forces Battalion (1º BFEsp for short) was established on November 1, 1983, moving to the military installations at Camboatá, Rio de Janeiro on September 27, 1984. In November 1991, the battalion took the colors, lineage, and historical name of Batalhão Antônio Dias Cardoso.

The 1º BFEsp divides its forces into a Command Company, the 1st and 2nd Airborne Special Operations companies, a Support Company, and the Counter-Terrorist Detachment (CTD). The CTD is in charge of counter-terrorist actions in the country, and maintains close ties with the GOE of Portugal. The CTD strength is believed to include 200 men divided into platoons of about 25 operators each.

The single Commando Company, at one point part of the SF Battalion, has evolved in the Battalion of Airborne Commando Activities (1º Batalhão de Ações de Comandos [Pára-quedista]). The old installations of the 1º BFEsp became the Centro de Instrução de Operações Especiais (CI OP ESP). The basic Special Operations training has a duration of 16 weeks encompassing jungle, riverine, and mountain warfare. The desert phase takes place at the Caatinga region, with has a particular harsh semi-desert environment.

The Special Forces Training Center offers courses for Snipers (Caçador), infiltrators (Mergulho Operacional), while the Centro de Instrução Pára-quedista General Penha Brasil provides several other specialty courses.

Conflictive Frontier

The military has successfully implemented the SIVAM (or Amazon Vigilance System) at a reported cost of $1.4 billion. Some of the funds come from the U.S. since this radar system will help to monitor small-plane flights over the huge jungle region. The government has stepped up efforts and has set aside a budget of $3.5 billion over the next eight years to acquire transport aircraft, and additional helicopters, for moving troops well inside the jungle. The Brazilian Armed Services are now tasked with controlling the frontier with Bolivia, Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela.

As soon as it took power, the new administration of President Felipe Calderón Hinojosa declared war against the drug traffickers in Mexico. The cartels responded in kind, and this gave way to almost open warfare in the streets of the main Mexican urban centers, with almost 1,000 deaths reported within the first months of 2007. Before this, in mid-2006, the Army intervened in Oaxaca, when a local uprising against the State governor left some 20 dead. In December 2006, the President attempted to transfer 7,500 soldiers, and 2,500 Marines to reinforce the Federal Police (PFP – Policía Federal Preventiva), but the move was resisted by the military, and presented several constitutional challenges. Then in March 2007, the Army was summoned to San Salvador Ateco, after a series of kidnappings and armed encounters between civilians and police.

In an effort to bring control and reinforce law enforcement agencies, the government modified Articles 1st, 2nd, and 2nd Transitory of the Military Organic Law, in May 2007, allowing for the creation of the new elite Federal Support Force Corps (CFAF – Cuerpo de Fuerzas de Apoyo Federal). The Defense Secretariat (SEDENA) provided 1,884 elements of the Army and Air Force. In fact, the initial strength was made up from reorganizing the Special Amphibious Forces Groups (GANFE – Grupos Anfibios de Fuerzas Especiales), and the force is expected to eventually grow to 3,500 elements, with the task of “restoring order and public security, combating organized crime, or performing against acts that threaten the homeland security.”

For years now, the government has attempted to hunt down the cartels using the military, and militarizing some police forces. In 1994, the Army established the Special Airmobile Forces Groups (GAFE – Grupos Aeromóviles de Fuerzas Especiales), and these were followed in 2001 by the GANFEs, also under Army Command, and both types of outfits were charged with arresting drug lords. The Navy also deployed Special Forces (FES) outfits for the same task, and the police organized several special operations units as well. According to press dispatches, for instance, the Special Operations Police Unit (UPOE) from the Oaxaca State Public Security Direction was trained by the Guatemalan Kaibiles between 1994 and 1999 at Vicente Guerrero, Villa de Zaachila, some 15km from Oaxaca City.

In early 2000 when the Army GAFEs were dispatched to Nuevo Laredo, at Tamaulipas, to chase Osiel Cárdenas Guillén of the Gulf Cartel, several commandos deserted to form the a hired-army. Their radio calls used code names starting with “Z”. The “Zetas” offered their services to the drug lords, and the war was on. The cartels are also said to have hired complete units of “kaibilillos” – former Guatemalan Kaibil Commandos. The PFP under the Ministry of Public Security and the Federal Investigations Agency (AFI – Agencia Federal de Investigaciones), subordinated to the District Attorney’s Office (PGR – Procuraduría General de la República), found themselves outgunned by the cartels.

The first step for the new outfit was a National Supreme Court Justice (SCJN) decision that allowed the Military to provide support in homeland security matters. As part of the military offensive, the Armed Forces and Law Enforcement agencies have reorganized and implemented a complete overhaul of the small arms arsenal.

Small Arms Arsenal

The FX-05 Xiuhcóatl is the new standard issued rifle for the Army and is being produced in large quantities by the DIM (Military Industry Department) after HK dropped its complaint for trade mark violations in February 2007.

The P7M13S is the general service pistol, with over 10,000 acquired. The Military Police prefers the P9S while Special Forces prefer the P226, along with Model 5906, and Model 6904. The commandos also use the Steyr M-A1 machine pistol and other small arms. The MP5A2 is the standard submachine gun for officers while the MP5K used for special service together with the MP5SD2 and the MP5SD6. The G3A3 and G3A4 remain as the standard issued rifle, with the MSG-90, PSG-1 and Morelos used by snipers at battalion level. The Model 82A1 is reserved for the GAFEs and the new CFAF. The Army also has an arsenal of some 1,521 shotguns, such as HK510, and Model 590 Mariner.

At squad level, the MINIMI-Para Mk 2 is often seen, along with the HK21A1, which is standard for the Infantry. The AA 7.62N F1 Char No. 1 comes in some of the ERC 90 F1 Lynx, and DNC-1 armored cars, but it is in the process of being replaced with the MAG-60-20, standard for the armored cavalry. The MAG is already a feature of the HWK 11 APCs, along with the MAG-60-20 found on flexible gun mounts on VBL, DN-III, DN-IV Caballo, and DNC-2 armored personnel carriers. The MAG-60-40 is found as a coaxial weapon in the DN-IV Caballo and DN-V Toro APCs. The Browning M2QCB and Browning M2HB, along with the Browning M3M are standard on armored transport vehicles.

The M203 is widely used under the G3 rifle, and it is also encountered as a pistol, and under the M16 rifle; however, the MGL MK1 is becoming the standard grenade launcher along with the German GMG type. The MK 19 MOD 3 is mounted on tripods and flexible pedestals.

Fire support for the infantry comes from Vektor M4L3, C03 Commando, M2 Cazador, M19 and ZCZ M57 60mm light mortars. There are also a great variety of 81mm models, and Brandt 120mm types; for antitank work, the RPG-7V is now standard, along with the French RL-83 Blindicide (some 1,191 acquired). The KAA (204GK) 20mm cannons were once used to equip the modernized M8 armored cars, but these have been exchanged for the South African M2 model, while the GAI-BO1 with the KAB-001 5TG cannon remains as the main AAA piece.

Other Small Arms

The Mexican Navy, and particularly its Marine Corps, deploys a considerable arsenal. Its elite units (FES) appear to prefer the Five-seveN, Mod 92FS and S&W Model 657 pistols and the M1911A1. The P90 is also widely used together with MP5 variants, and UMP submachine guns. The M16A2 rifle and Carbine, M16A2 Commando, and M4 remain as standard issued weapons for the Marines, and some FAL-Paras have also been observed. The MSG90 remains as preferred weapon for Marine snipers along with the PSG-1 model. The Marines carry the Model 590 Mariner shotgun, and the CETME AMELI SAW, and now are taking delivery of MINIMI-Para Mk 2 models. The HK21A1 and MAG-60-20 are also found in tripods and pedestal mounts, while the Browning M3M is found as door guns for the new AS 565MA Panther helicopters, along with the GAU-19/A which arm the MD902 Combat Explorer helicopters.

The Marines use the MGL MK1, and M203PI grenade launchers, as well as the CIS 40AGL model, with the MK 19 MOD 3 found on Mules wheeled vehicles and Trucks. The Marines appear to have taken delivery of some B-300s.

The country has been flooded with arms for the police and thugs alike. The Five-seveN is found in the hands of the Federal District Police, while the Mod 92FS has been observed in the hands of the elite GOE, and AFI. The Glock 17 is standard with the Judicial Antidrug Police, and the P225 is used by the Federal District Police. The AFI uses the S&W Model 5906 while other State Police prefer the Model 6904. The GOPE also uses the Browning HP Mk 3.

The submachine gun arsenal includes the Mod 12S used by the Federal District Police and the CAR-15 R635 (M16 SMG) of the AFI. The PFP carries the MP5A3, which is also a preferred weapon of the Anti-drug Police and State Police forces. The Uzi and Uzi Model B Carbine is found on the hands of several police agents, and in Mexico City several local police agents were observed equipped with the Mendoza HM-3-S. There are also a few MGP-84s made in Peru.

The local police makes wide use of the AR-15 R6000 Sporter, AR-15A1 R613 (M16A1), AR-15A2 R705 (M16A2), AR-15A2 R6530, CAR-15A1 R653 (M16A1 Carbine), CAR-15A2 R725A (M16A2 Carbine), CAR-15A2 R6520 Government Carbine, HK G36A1, G36V, HK33A2, HK33A3, HK33KA3, HK53A3 and Galil SAR. These weapons have also found their way to different crime organizations, along with the ever present AK-47, AKS-47, and AKMS. Most police snipers use the Model 700 while other units use the Model 500ATP8 shotgun.

Hardened Enemies

Article 11 of the Organic Law allows the CFAF to respond directly under the orders of SEDENA instead of the President, and to the request of local civilian authorities. In fact, the creation of the CFAF is only the initial step for an ambitious plan to bring order, and the creation of a new 40,000 strong Federal Police Corps (CFP – Cuerpo Federal de Policía) with a new gendarmerie to be organized for operations in towns with less of 20,000 inhabitants. The plan is said to have been designed by experts from the National Security and Investigation Center (CISEN – Centro de Investigación y Seguridad Nacional), the PFP and the AFI, with advice provided by the Spanish Civil Guard, FBI and DEA. The CFP boss will have links to the Treasury, State, Immigration and Custom departments, and it is expected to have strong links to the US DEA as well, along with increased US presence in the country.

The Mexicans, however, stress that the main problem remains the strong drug consumption of the US market. They point out that 1kg has a street value of USD$12,000 in Mexico, but reaches USD$25,000 at the US border and up to USD$50,000 in any street of an American City.

Almost 20 years ago in December 1989, in Operation Just Cause, the US invaded Panama in an effort to depose and capture General Manuel Antonio Noriega. As a teen, the author had the opportunity to visit the original Comandancia installations and thirty years later had a chance to visit the new installations of the Public Force built over the ashes of the former Comandancia. During this visit the Head of the Department of Public Relations of the Panamanian Public Force, Didacio L. Camargo, assured me that the troops observed in the corridors of the base were just police agents who had returned from operations in the mountains – after all, the Panamanian Defense Forces ceased to exist in December 1989. These police agents sure looked as seasoned soldiers dressed in OD fatigues, jungle hats and boots, assault vests and AKMs. The equipment is needed in order to patrol the vast and dangerous Darien jungle that borders Colombia and the broken terrain along the Costa Rican side. These were members of the Frontier Police; an elite outfit trained and equipped to operate deep in the forest in charge of planning, organizing, directing and executing actions and operations to guarantee the territorial national integrity.

Between 1953 and 1983, military and police duties fell on the National Guard. With the passing of Law No. 20 in 1983, the National Guard was divided into police, territorial, air and maritime forces, and then, on December 23 of the same year, Law No. 44 was passed transforming the agency into the Defense Forces (PDF). The US launched Just Cause on December 20, 1989, bringing to a sudden halt the development of the Panamanian military forces. The Panamanian Public Force (PPF) was created under Executive Decree No. 38 on February 10, 1990 to replace the PDF. The PPF is a law enforcement focused institution comprising the National Police (PNP), a Judicial Technical Police (PTJ), an Institutional Protection Service, the National Maritime Service (SMN) and the National Air Service (SAN). A constitutional amendment passed in 1994 abolished the military. Law enforcement units that are separated from the PPF, such as the Technical Judicial Police, also are directly subordinate to civilian authorities. Drug traffic and protection of the Panama Canal have become a major concern of this new entity, and today, the agencies involved in drug law enforcement are the Panamanian National Police (PNP), the Technical Judicial Police (PTJ), the National Maritime Service (SMN), the National Air Service (SAN), the Customs Service, the Joint Information Coordination Center, and the Drug Prosecutor’s Office.

The Panamanian Public Force

The invasion smashed the Defense Forces and most of the captured equipment was destroyed. The US would not allow another military establishment to be organized in Panama. However, the US-Panamanian Treaty required a force to protect the Canal to be in place before the transfer of 2000, and this originated rumors that the transfer would not take place. Against all odds, the transfer did take place as scheduled, and from the ashes of the Defense Forces the government created the Public Force (PPF) under the Ministry of Government and Justice.

Of the PPF, the Servicio de Protección Institucional (SPI) responds directly to the Office of the President, and was established in 1990 by Carlos Barés. The SPI deploys some 600 men, well-trained and equipped with HK MP5, Glocks and other equipment, for the protection of VIPs and intervention tasks. They are distinguished by the use of black uniforms.

The PTJ (Policía Técnica Judicial) operates under the control of the Panamanian Supreme Court since 1999. The PTJ is Panama’s equivalent of the U.S. FBI and has a small anti-narcotics unit with some 80 members responsible for enforcing national narcotics laws. The PTJ is the lead agency for conducting chemical and criminal investigations, including illegal and pharmaceutical drugs, and it has a proactive task of monitoring chemical shipments imported to, exported from, and transiting Panama. The DEA has a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the PTJ.

Panama’s Customs Service functions as a fiscal organization under the Panamanian Treasury Department. Customs enforces contraband laws and collects import duties. Criminal violations involving other matters, when uncovered by the Customs Service, are referred to the already mentioned PTJ.

Today the Ministry of Government and Justice dedicates some $159.1 millions to security concerns. The National Police (PNP) is its main element of the Ministry’s PPF, deploying some 15,000 agents nationwide. The invading US forces captured between 16 and 19 armored vehicles, but Mr. L. Camargo tells us that the PPF lacks any such vehicle, and the force remains equipped with Infantry equipment only.

By September 1, 2004, the National Police (PNP) had been under the command of Gustavo Pérez. Its forces in Panama City had been divided into Panamá Metro Este, Panamá Metro Norte, and Panamá Metro Oeste, and police precincts at ZP Bocas del Toro, ZP Chiriquí, ZP Darién, ZP Herrera, ZP San Miguelito, ZP Arraijam, ZP Coclé, ZP Cora, ZP Colón, ZP Kuna Ayala, ZP Los Santos, and ZP Veraguas. Additional related tasks are trusted to the Penal Security Police, the Crown Control Unit, Children and Teens Police, the Information and Investigation Direction, and Transit Operations. The Canal Zone Police in charge of the waterway and the other specialty units mentioned above add to the operational status of the PNP. The Service Support Group comprises three units. Of these, the Motorized Police Unit, established in 1993 at Albrook and trained by Venezuelan advisers is equipped with Suzuki DR-350 motorbikes. The unit is considered an elite outfit, and its members are designated Linces, and sport either OD or black fatigues, assault vests, protective helmets, and carry either Uzi or Peruvian MGP-84 Submachine Guns. Under the Specialty Services Direction we found the Maintenance & Riverine and Coastal Operations Unit, the PNP’s own naval flotilla equipped with 10 launches and based at Building 807 from the former Kobe Military Base. Under the same Direction we found the Air Police Unit, a separate entity from the SAN, and established on December 4, 2002, with a MD500E PNP HP1 donated by Taiwan. The Border National Direction keeps troops along both borders. The PNP was equipped with a few old T65 rifles, but now the AKM and variants have been widely distributed along with a few support weapons. The Special Operations Units carry the MP5 and HK53 SMGs.

Without a doubt, the Colombian border remains as a major security concern. Prior to the US invasion of 1989, the Colombian border was watched by elements of the Peace Battalion and the 3rd Diablos Rojos Company. US Army troops took over the tasks momentarily and then it passed to the hands of contractors for about 3 months until the establishment of the Chiriquí Police Zone. However, incursions by Colombian FARC guerrillas were detected at Choco-Urabá region and in January 1993, FARC guerrillas kidnaped missionaries along Púcuro. By October 1996, Colombian paramilitaries had attacked Armila, at Kuna Yala. These armed activities forced the establishment of the Darién Police Zone in 1997, which deployed a specially trained unit of 50 commandos to chase bandits up in the mountains. The problems persisted, and on April 20, 1999, the FARC attacked Sapzurro, followed by another attack on November 19, against Bonga, also at Kuna Yala, forcing a reinforcement of police along Comarca de San Blas. On April 11, 2003, the governments of Panama and Colombia signed the Combitrom Agreement (Comisión Binacional Fronteriza), a Police Cooperation Treaty to increase police and military presence along the border, and today the border police division deploys considerable assets.

The SAN, National Air Service, is responsible for protecting Panama’s air space and conducting aerial patrols. It also provides crop eradication support, humanitarian flights, aerial intelligence, and reconnaissance support to the various law enforcement entities of Panama. The SAN has 393 personnel, providing support for counterdrug operations, and it deploys a platoon conforming the Unidad Aérea de Fuerzas Especiales (UAFE), providing for intervention tasks. The SAN was established in 1990, and it operates from Air Stations at Santiago and David. The 1st Squadron operates six Aviocar C212s; the 2nd Squadron uses UH-1Hs, and a single Bell 407 (SAN 210) donated by Taiwan. After the US invasion of 1989, ENAER (Chile) received a contract for 1.19 millions Balboas (equivalent to the same in US dollars) for the recovery and overhaul of seven T-35 Pilláns, and today the aircraft are flown by the 3rd Squadron.

The SMN (National Maritime Service) is responsible for patrolling Panama’s waterways, operating 37 patrol craft to patrol Panama’s 2,800 kilometers of shoreline and 1,480 islands. US sources indicate that the service endeavors to maintain three patrol craft in the coastal waters of the Chiriqui Province (Pacific), and two patrol craft in the Bocas del Toro (Atlantic-Caribbean) area, to enforce economic and environmental laws as well as providing some deterrence to a full range of illegal activities. The SMN traces its origins to the Departamento de Operaciones Marinas established by Torrijos in 1968; this becomes the Naval Force in 1983, moving operations to Fort Amador. During Just Cause, US forces sank the patrol boats P-202 Presidente Porras in Balboa and P-101 Zarati at the Manzanillo Bay. One of the boats was recovered later.

With the establishment of the SMN in 1990, the government chose the Naval Base at Largo Remo as the first Naval HQ. The SMN developed from that point on, and now accounts for some 600 elements operating from 6 bases and 10 observation posts. In 1991 the SMN occupied installations at Flamenco Island, and in 1998, the former Marine Barracks in the Cocolí Naval Base. A little later, the service expands to Pier 3, at the old Rodman Naval Station, converting into the Vasco Nuñez de Balboa Naval Base, and the Atlantic Flotilla becomes operational at Coco Solo. Later, the installations at former Fort Sherman become the Cristóbal Colón Naval Base, and Naval Observation Posts (POM – Puestos de Observación Marítimos) are established at Taboga, San Miguel, Punta Cocos, Saboga, Pedro González and Otoque Oriente & Occidente as well as the Chimán District in Chimán, Brujas and Gonzalo Vásquez. The Service has established the Cocolí Naval Base Communication Center with the task of coordinating the maritime services.

The SMN has a Marine outfit, which has received training and equipment from the Spanish Civil Guard. The Panamanian Marines and Naval Commandos have their origins with the 1st Compañía de Infantería Naval of the FDP, which operated from Coco Solo, along with the Pelotón de Comandos de Marina (Naval Commandos Platoon) from Fort Amador. Both outfits would be disbanded soon after Just Cause, and replaced with elements of the new SMN. Today, the Maritime Service deploys a Grupo de Operaciones Subacuáticas (Diving Operations Group) under capitán de Corbeta Carlos Quiroz Abrego, qualified for Tactical Diving Operations. In addition, the Naval Infantry element, Infamar (Infantería de Marina), comprises a Grupo de Operaciones Especiales (GOE) and a Grupo de Seguridad. The Special Forces Group is charged with drug interdiction and boarding.

The SMN has received considerable assistance from the US, including a modified landing craft delivered in May 2004, and baptized SMN “Gral. Esteban Huertas” A-402, which arrived from Roosevelt Road Naval Base in Puerto Rico to Base Naval Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, in Panama. With funds from the US Embassy six “Eduardoño” style go-fast boats were rebuilt and donated to the SMN in 2004. Another four boats followed these, and all have new gasoline tanks, twin 200hp Yamaha engines, and radars, Global Positioning Systems (GPS), among other significant enhancements. They have a maximum speed of over 35 knots and its radar has a 12 nautical mile range. Two additional units followed in 2005, along with $50,000 in modern counter-narcotic equipment, and five tactical military vehicles for the PNP, and 18 heavy-duty vehicles for the Public Force.

The SMN was under the command of Ricardo Traad Porras, but in a change of fortunes, Traad Porras was first removed and soon after arrested, in mid-2007 accused of money-laundering. Several other officers were also arrested after a DEA sting operation.

The U.S. Coast Guard Attaché’s Office and the DEA have worked with the GOP to conduct multiple large-scale maritime law enforcement operations to interdict drug shipments in Panama. The operations also provide training in hot pursuit and the boarding of vessels in accordance with international law. These exercises allow both U.S. and Panamanian personnel to gain experience in developing communication, aviation, and search plans. Realizing that the most important material of the SMN flotillas are the five Point class vessels transferred from the USCG, every two years several Latin American countries meet in Panama under exercise Round Out to learn techniques in operations and maintenance of the Points. In order of developing a comprehensive defense of the Canal, the Panamanian government and the US counterpart sponsor a bi-annual exercise attended by Chile, Canada, Ecuador, France, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Peru, Argentina, Mexico, Honduras, Panama, and the United States and designated Panamax. The goal of the exercise is to prepare for the execution, development of standardization and maritime interdiction techniques, rules of engagement, security, and develop command and control of multinational forces in case of emergency.

The Chilean Army has been experiencing an overall reorganization assisted by considerable investment in equipment, training and overall modernization. By October 2006, more than 100 new Humvees had arrived with some other 300 expected to be received during 2007. In June 2006, the Communications Regiment Taparaca (R. TELEC. Nº 6) from Iquique received the first YPR-765 IFVs, and the government announced the establishment of the first Armored Brigade at arid Iquique region. All this was in line with a complete material replacement and restructuring around 1 mountain, 2 motorized and 4 armored brigades while preserving its 7 divisions structure. On January 1, 2007 the Army established the Special Operations Brigade (BOE – Brigada de Operaciones Especiales) at Peldehue, which took over the Special Forces Group/Parachute & Special Forces School from La Colina. The new brigade calls Arteaga Fort home, and absorbs the Special Forces Battalion, Parachute Battalion (conventional airborne unit), and the 6th Commando Regiment (desert ops), and will probably oversee the SF School. The new Mountain Brigade most likely will take over for the 1st and 2nd Commando Regiments (Ranger/Commando type units), and the Pathfinder units – mountain troops Yungay (Nº 3), Talca (Nº 16), Los Angeles (Nº 17) and Guardia Vieja (Nº 18).

In addition, Rafael Ltd. from Israel supplied the powerful AT Spike missile and established a maintenance and Operations Center at the National Workshop MMG No.1 Arica (Mantenimiento de Material de Guerra Nº 1). The AT Spike will supplement the M40A1 RCLs, which have been overhauled and modernized with thermal sights, and infrared rangefinder to provide for all weather operations and maximize range. In December 2006, the government acquired a number of Pumar RHIBs from the local ASMAR for operations with the BOE.

The Army is well equipped, and the small arms arsenal includes the Mod 92F pistol, made by Fábricas y Maestranzas del Ejército (FAMAE), and the CZ75 (FN750), also from FAMAE, which has become the standard sidearm. The FAMAE FT2000 is found in limited service while the standard submachine gun is the FAMAE SAF-MT9 in all variants, including Mini-SAF, standard model, and suppressed. The Uzi and Mini-Uzi are still widely used, particularly by the Fuerzas Especiales while the Ingram M10 and the M11/9 Cobray from SWD Inc. are still encountered, but in reduced numbers. Special Forces also make use of the BXP, from Milkor, South Africa.

The SG540-1 rifles in 5.56x45mm caliber are built under license from SIG by FAMAE, and have been in general service as the standard army issue rifle since 1986. Airborne troops, crews and Special Forces use the shorter SG543-1, also in 5.56x45mm and folding stock. The Galil SAR is limited to Special Forces operators, along with the Galil ARM 354. For precision work, the Army snipers use the SG550-1 Sniper, in caliber 5.56x45mm, along with the HK MSG90, the HK PSG1 (both with the Hensoldt 6x scope), the Galil SR 339, and the Mauser Modell 66SP and Modell 86SR: all these rifles in 7.62x51mm. The SSG3000, also in 7.62x51mm, is encountered along with the M21 in some special units. The range now includes the Model 82A1M in caliber 12.7x99mm.

Second line units use the FAL-50-00, in 7.62x51mm. The Army acquired 14,500 SG510-4 in 1962, followed by the SG542-1 in 1986, and all these are still encountered in limited service with examples of the G3A3 being used by Mountain troops. Security units and SF make use of the SPAS 15 from Luigi Franchi SpA in caliber 18.5x70mmR. Squad fire support comes from MINIMI-Para Mk 2 and some FALO-50-42 while platoon support is provided by MAG-60-20, MG42/59, and M60. The Browning M2HB is widely used, and it also equips the 50 or so newly received and overhauled (shortened) M113C&R armored reconnaissance vehicles, and hundreds of M113A5.

FAMAE supplies the GM 78-F7 grenade, which is an offensive model with optional fragmentation sleeve for use as defensive weapon. Industrias Cardoen S.A and Metalurgica de Norte Ltda (METALNOR) have supplied the Offensive/Defensive Type, which has a hollow-charge in bottom, the Mini (defensive grenade), and the MK 2. The Army has acquired the MGL MK1, made by Milkor, and the M203PI from RM Equipment, Miami. The model 40AGL from Chartered Industries of Singapore (CIS) is also in use.

FAMAE builds the MO 60 AV Commando 60mm mortars made under license from TDA, Meudon-La-Forêt, France, M19 models, also in 60mm, and 81mm models. Hyrdoar SA, from Brazil, has supplied M18A1 RCLs in caliber 57x305mmR, used along the M72A3 LAWW in 66mm, the Armbrust in 67mm (from CIS), and the B-300 in 82mm. Some Carl Gustavs have also been observed. The Spike is coming in line and supplements the 106mm M40A1 – many of them modernized with thermal and IR system for all-weather ops.

The Army has purchased 139 YPR IFVs from the Belgian SABIEX, and similar vehicles from excess equipment from The Netherlands. The Army also contracted for hundreds of surplus M113A2 and similar Italian made CCV-1. They are all being modernized with 300hp turbocharged engines (hence M113A5 designation), and 60 of them will receive the KUKA E23 turret with a 25mm MK30-1 while 125 of the YPR IFVs will receive KBA-B02 cannons. Several MK 19 Mod3 grenade launchers from General Dynamics Defense were also purchased in 2001 to be mounted on the M113 APCs. The Army placed an initial order for 118 Leopard 2A4, which will allow for the final retirement of the M41 and M24 models, along with the AMX-30 and the M50 Isherman while the Leopard 1-V will be relegated to second line units. The artillery will also modernize with the arrival of some 24 155mm M109A5 self-propelled units, and being overhauled by RUAG, and some excess chassis will be equipped with LAR160 tactical missiles from Israel. The Army has acquired over 407 MAG-60-40 Coaxial T3 MGs for use as coaxial guns on the Leopard 1V and YPR-765. The AA 7.62N F1 is used as flexible gun on AMX 30B1 and AMX 30B2 main battle tanks, along with the M693 (CN MIT 20 F2) 20 guns.

The air defenses have been somewhat deficient until recently; depending on self-defense last-ditch guns and Mistral MANPADs. There are several M168 Vulcans, some 20 TCM-20, and more than 100 HS693-B3.1/GAI-CO1 AAA mounts with KAD-B13-3 (HS820) 20mm cannons. The KAD-B16/B17 (HS820) in caliber 20x139mm is used in the locally made FAMIL-2M twin air defense mounts, and there is a limited number of Rh202 from Rheinmetall GmbH. There are 24 Oerlikon GDF-001 KDB twin mounts with 35x228mm cannons completing the ground air defenses.

With the modernization effort, one of the most potential and interesting options to the Army could be the adoption of the Israeli Defender CLO system as a close-in ground air defense. The Defender ground Based SHORAD was developed by Rafael Ltd. and Thales Nederland, which combines the Rafael’s Barak missile and Thales’ Flycatcher Mk2 (already used for the GDF-001). Most important, the Defender CLO is simply an adaptation of the naval surface to air missile Barak to a ground vertical launcher inside a light trailer. The Chilean adopted the Barak for their frigates in the 1990s, but the new frigates acquired recently in The Netherlands and the UK came with their own – and different – air defense systems. This made the Barak redundant, but by no means less capable. Nevertheless, it would be unthinkable for the Navy to use three similar systems (Sea Sparrow, Sea Wolf and Barak), so the transformation of the sea Barak to a ground based system would be possible, and economically feasible.

The Defender is a state-of-the-art, modern autonomous weapon, intended to present the user with an effective defence, featuring large hemispherical coverage. It can search, identify, track, shoot and destroy all potential air intruders. The maintenance Barak is contained within a sealed launching canister, which protects the missile not only in the operation, but also in storage and handling, contributing to readiness and reliability of the missile, confirmed by an automatically executed built-in self-test (BIT), prior to launch. With all, in early April 2007 the Army acquired some 24 Gepard 5PZF-B air defense vehicles with KDB 35mm guns and autonomous radar to protect armored formations; some sources even indicate that the total Gepards will be 60, but this is doubtful.

The Infantry will be completely re-equipped with the HK G36 as well; and given the country’s various environments and geographical features, training continues to be intensive and diversified. All these items, sophistication and preparation makes the Chilean Army one of the better equipped in South America, if not the best.

The Colombian attack on February 29, 2008, against the FARC Front 48 stronghold, some 1,800 meters to the south of the Putumayo river, in Santa Rosa – and inside Ecuadorian territory – caught the rebels by surprise, and resulted in the fall of Luis Edgar Devia (aka Raul Reyes), a leader of the FARC directorate. Along with the body of Raul Reyes, the Colombian government captured a number of laptops with all sorts of intelligence information to include correspondence between the insurgents and Hugo Chavez in Venezuela, and their contacts in Ecuador. This victory was followed by the announcement in May that Manuel Marulanda Vélez “Tirofijo” (real name Pedro Antonio Marín), founder of the FARCs and its maximum leader, was dead. A few days before, Nelly Avila Moreno, aka Karina, another member of the FARC directorate, had been taken into custody.

To continue the fight, in April 2008 the government specified that the upcoming budget would provide 37,000 new soldiers between the previous 2007 and 2010 numbers. The budget also allows for 8,000 new rifles for a total of 13,000 small arms, and 185 gun trucks to be acquired between May and November of 2008. More helicopters are expected for added mobility around Guaviare, Guainía and Vaupés, and the police will receive 511 new motorcycles.

The Colombian Army, with considerable assistance in particular from the US and the British, and Europeans and Israel in general, has become a well equipped and trained force. Equipment comes from Indumil (short for Military Industries) with three main installations: General José María Córdoba Factory manufacturing small arms, particularly the Galil rifle under IMI (now IWI) license; Antonio Ricaurte Factory producing projectiles and explosives; and Santa Bárbara Factory producing ammunition. The arsenal is diversified and abundant.

In 1989 the armed forces received the first 2,020 examples of the Model 92FS (Beretta M9), which is the standard sidearm along the superb CZ75B. Some Browning HP pistols are still encountered, and the Glock 17 and Jericho 941 are also seen in operations along the locally produced Indumil Scorpio. Squad officers observed in Bogotá carried the MP5 submachine gun, and certainly the HK product is seen in all its variants: MP5A2, MP5A5, MP5A5NF, MP5SD3 and MP5K, particularly in the hands of elite forces. Some units took the Colt SMG in 9mm.

The obsolete M1 Garand was eventually replaced in the 1970s with the G3 rifle, with some 30,000 purchased in the G3A3 and G3A4 variants, along with PSG-1 with Hensoldt scope for precision work, and the HK21 for squad support. In the 1980s the Colombian government selected the Galil rifle to replace the G3, purchasing some 100,000 models in 7.62mm caliber. Starting in 1996, Indumil acquired licensed production rights, and by 2005 production had changed to the Galil SR/AR/MAR 5.56mm and variants. The conversion of all 7.62mm models to the standard 5.56mm was also implemented. The National Police receives the Galil semiautomatic-only version. The transfer of technology started with Indumil purchasing the required machinery to produce the rifle and dispatching a technical team to Israel. Israel Weapons Industry (IWI) also dispatched technicians to Colombia to assists in the setting up production. The manufacturing of the Galil in country saves around US$40 million a year in government revenues. Ironically, Israel is now purchasing the rifle from Colombia since IWI has ceased production in favor of the Tavor, and Colombia has become the sole producer of the Galil since 2006. Two years later, Indumil had increased the manufacturing of the Galil rifles to 42,000 examples a year, and it has increased the annual production of 5.56mm cartridges to 61 million.

More recently, the Army has been receiving the Tavor TAR-21 and CTAR-21 with MIL-STD-1913 sight rail incorporated. The US has been supplying M16A1 and M16A2s with the first 1,126 acquired in 1990. The Military Forces have received in excess of 4,358 M16A1 Carbine, M16A2 Commando, M4, and M4A1, and more than 16,468 M14 rifles. US assistance also delivered more than 243 M24 and M40A1 sniper rifles starting in 2003. The Military Forces started receiving the Barrett Model 82A1M in 2005, and has incorporated USAS-12 and Model 870P shotguns.

The HK21 has been replaced with the M249A1, Vektor S77 and Negev light machine guns for squad support, and is complemented with some MAG-58 types. The M60 is universally used since 1985, to include the M60D in pedestal mounts in helicopters. Over 1,000 M60E3s have been received since 1985, along with over 800 M60E4 examples. The US delivered more than 650 M79 grenade launchers and in excess of 450 M203 models. Additional M203s came from Turkey, and Indumil now produces it as well. The Army makes considerable use of the RBG-6 MGL, a Croatian copy of the Milkor model, and the MGL MK1, both using the 6-round revolver type system.

The local Indumil produces the M26 and M67 defensive grenades. While the light antitank weapon arsenal includes M72A3 models, there are also Russian types such as RPG-7V, RPG-16 Udar, RPG-22 Neto and RPG-27 and RPG-29. Some elite units have received the AT4 and Carl Gustaf M3, and the Naval Infantry uses the Intalaza C-90 and Apilas. Support comes from MK19 Mod 3 MGLs, mounted on pedestals, and GAU-17/A, GAU-19/A, M134, and Chain Gun machine guns mounted on helicopters. For heavier support, the military counts with the Browning AN-M2, M2HB, and M3.

Local factories produce 100-pound and 125-pound bombs of local design as well as modern radio communication equipment. The government has contracted for the delivery of some 12,000 HE rounds for 155mm howitzers, along with some 4,000 rounds for 120mm mortars. IWI has also provided and facilitated the production of a 60mm commando light mortar and the military has cranked up local production of ammunition for its Mod-L (ECIA), MO-60, L-4, Vektor-M1, IMI-C03 Commando, IMI-C06, IMI-C08, M2, and M19 light mortars in 60 and 81mm and 40mm grenade launchers. The government has acquired 38 HY-12 Makina 120mm mortars to replace older models.

The purchases of weapons from Israel have continued, including the first 5 launchers for 50 Spike antitank missiles. These now operate along with Nimrod and TOW types, while the ground troops receive support from M40A1 in 106mm. These recoilless rifles have proved extremely effective, so it is only a matter of time before these elderly weapons are completely modernized to supplement the most modern missiles. Although the 106mm projectile is still effective against most armor, there is no need at this time for anti-armor support. The M40A1 is more useful and economical than sophisticated hardware in the anti-personnel role and against built-up areas as counter ambush weapons and against machine gun nests. IWI has already assisted in the modernization of M40A1 in Chile, and a similar project could be implemented in Colombia, adapting laser telemetry, IR and thermo sights for use day-night-any-weather-any-time. In fact, the local industry could do it thorough Coctemar (autonomous shipyard consortium) and has already developed the Jeyur weapons systems. The Jeyur, named after a deadly Colombian scorpion, consists of a weapons pedestal containing the same sophisticated equipment mentioned above to direct and accurately fire, by remote control, heavy machine guns and grenade launchers in small riverine naval combatants in any weather or conditions.

The Infantry goes to combat in the new uniform in “pixel” camouflage, developed by the No.1 Quartermaster Battalion “Juanas” in “woodland” green and khaki desert tones. The uniform was first distributed along units of the X Division, Omega Task Force, Special Forces, commandos, counter-guerrilla and pipeline security units. All web gear is also designed and produced in country, and most soldiers appear to prefer the assault vest with two large breast pouches at each side.

Lanceros: Loyalty, Valor and Sacrifice for Colombia

Spearheading the government efforts are the Lanceros. The term refers to the Colombian Rangers, and its origins are found as part of a small unit raised in 1819, and a derivative of the word “spear” in Spanish. In 1959, the Colombian Army organized several Lancero Companies to take the fight to the jungle. These were re-organized into counter-insurgency platoons in 1966 with the purpose of making them more agile and flexible. As the demand for the Lanceros’ skills increased, these experts were assimilated into the new hunter, and counter-guerrilla battalions. The Lanceros were reintegrated once more around 2004 with the establishment of the reinforced battalion, known as Lancero Group (AGLAN); they live for loyalty to their superiors, comrades, subordinates, the institution, and the motherland; they demonstrates valor to deal with all the difficulties found in the field, and each Lancero sacrifices his needs for the benefit of the force. These three simple words define a Colombian Ranger.

The AGLAN, along with the BACOA (Commando Battalion), form the direct action forces of the Army Special Operations Command (COESE). In addition, this command also comprises the Army Special Commando (CEE), an anti-narcotic team, working along with the Army Intelligence Operations Center (CIME) and the Colombian Technical Intelligence Center (CITEC).

The Lanceros School (ESLAN) notoriety was earned as a result of producing one of the finest jungle fighters in the continent. Between 1955 and 2005, the school held 284 classes, producing 10,000-jungle experts; add a couple of thousand more by now. ESLAN was established by Decree No. 3155 on December 6, 1955, and was led by a group of officers who had attended and graduated from the US Ranger Course. The instructors adapted the techniques and tactics learned in the US to the Amazon jungle environment typical of Colombia, and thus evolved into one of the most prestigious counter-insurgency training establishments in South America.

Without a doubt, the most grueling part of the Lancero Course is the jungle class. This now takes place at the Amazon II Fort, with the three-day survival part of it taking place at Ronda Island, in the middle of the Amazon River. The jungle class takes two weeks, and it is the last of about two and one half months of intensive training designed to create motivated and well skilled leaders of small units ready to fight in any kind of terrain. In here they will learn that the guerrillas are likely to booby trap branches, so picking up fruits from the trees to eat during the duration of the class is forbidden. Therefore, the local cuisine calls for learning to eat the mojojoy (between other things) a worm found in the palm tree-trunks. It helps to mentally prepare for them by naming them “jungle shrimp” (if it sounds better, maybe it tastes better). The class will culminate with the “Death March” where the candidates will have to cover in full gear all 36 kms separating the Amazons II Fort from Leticia City. Those who make it receive the emblem typical of the Lanceros and the black beret.

A Lancero starts his training with a Preparatory Phase lasting two weeks. The candidate reviews field hygiene, communications, basic small arms, and planning. The phase is complemented with another class dedicated to developing resistance, evasion, escape, and survival skills (REES – in Spanish). Here the candidates prepares physically, tactically and mentally for the next phase.

The following phase is called Complementary Phase. The first three weeks of this phase are spent at the Lancero Training Center in Tolemaida, learning jungle warfare tactics, and a few days spend at Icononzo, Tolima, in platoon leadership skills. At the end of the 7th week, the class will move to the Jungle Training Center at Amazonas II Fort, where they will spend their last two weeks of training. Most elements of other elite forces have attended the Lancero training at one point or another.

AFEAU + AFEUR

The national intervention unit is the Antiterrorist Urban Special Forces Group (AFEAU), found under the Colombian Special Forces Command (CCOPE). The AFEAU was established in April 8, 1985, and it comprises four teams, each with 2 officers and 13 commandos selected from all four branches of the military (Army, Air Force, Navy and Police). The AFEUR, on the other hand, refers to twelve Army Urban Special Forces Groups distributed among the seven Army Divisions for local antiterrorist tasks. Given the name, there is considerable confusion between the AFEAU and the AFEUR, even in official documents. Each AFEUR is divided in six squads of 15 men. In addition, each brigade deploys a GAES, or Anti-Extortion and Anti-Kidnapping Special Group.

The Army Rural Special Forces Brigade (BRFER) deploys three Special Forces battalions (BFER2, BFER3 & BFER4), from Tolemaida, and also is associated to the FUDRA. This is the Rapid Reaction Force established on December 7, 1999, at Tolemaida Fort, with the 1st airmobile brigade (BRM01), BRM02 and BRM03. By 2008, the Army had organized 21 mobile brigades, each comprising 1,287 soldiers divided into 4 counter-guerrilla, one support and services and one headquarters battalions. There are several jungle brigades, such as the 22nd, 26th, 27th, 28th and the 43rd.

The Counter-Narcotics Special Forces Brigade (BRCNA) became active on May 14, 2000 and immediately deployed to Putumayo, and then to Larandia (Caquetá) to fight narco-guerrillas and drug runners. Today, the BRCNA deploys the following counter-narcotics battalions: BACNA1, BACNA2, and BACNA3, supported by BASCN (logistical support battalion), and all operating from Larandia. The BRCNA has been trained and equipped by USSF.

Starting on March 22, 2001, the Colombian Army deployed its first of seven or eight high mountain battalions, trained under the supervision of the British SAS. Each battalion aligns 30 officers, 566 soldiers, 193 specialist and NCOs and 7 civilians. Finally, as part of the Army element we mention the little known Matamoros Mechanized Group, X Armored Brigade, which corresponds to the desert commandos. The Group is based at La Flor, and operates in long range mobile patrols using motorcycles (called Scorpions), SOV Humvees, SOV Abir pickups, EE9 Fire Support vehicles and EE11 armored transports, patrolling an area of 11,000 square kilometers.

Other military elites

Since 2004, the Air Special Commando Group (ACOEA) provides base security and Csar support for the Air Force.

The Colombian Marine Corps is considered an elite element of the military, fielding one regular Marine and two river warfare brigades; however, the 1st Marine Special Forces Battalion (BFEIM) provides for dedicated special operations tasks. BFEIM operates from Cartagena, deploying counter-guerrilla battalions, two Nav Afeur and the Northern Naval Special Dive Unit (UBEN – Unidad de Buceos Especiales del Norte). Another specialized outfit little known outside Colombia is the Submarine Commando Group (Grupo de Comandos Submarinos), equivalent to the US Navy Seals, and charged with covert operations along the Colombian, and also any other, coastal area. Their main “toy” is the Chariot SDV. Three of these are operational, and are named Arc Defensora, Arc Poderosa and Arc Protectora. These vehicles allow two combat scuba divers to infiltrate enemy positions. Like the Seals, these commandos train in all sort of conditions, and have developed a number of techniques for interdiction, in-mobilization and boarding of go-fast boats. Each Unit comprises two officers and five Marine NCOs. The Navy does not release much information on how many Units form the Group, but it is known that the Submarine Commando School has graduated 23 operators since its recent establishment. These naval commandos operate in tandem with those men assigned to the Cosmos midget submarines operated by the Navy. They also have close ties with the Amphibious Commando Group, which would be the Colombian equivalent to a 100-strong Recon Company. The Group is divided in four platoons of 25 operators, and they are in charge of reconnaissance operations for the Colombian Marines. The Navy and its Reconnaissance and Assault Group (GREAS), trained by US and British commandos, are tasked with validating intelligence dealing with illicit fast boat operations and boarding operations.

(The Author is grateful for the assistance and cooperation received from the Assistance Integral Office of the Colombian Army, CAN.)

Every two years the beautiful city of Rio de Janeiro hosts the Latin American Aero & Defense fair (LAAD). This year, the event combined the tri-service military show and the new Homeland Security Sector. Personnel from all armed forces, law enforcement and other security services attended LAAD. The fair highlights defense industry sectors showing growth potential in the region, homeland security, and equipment for use by armed forces on peacekeeping missions; such as personal protective equipment (helmets, flak jackets, shields, etc.), less-than-lethal weapons, and other systems for defense and security (law enforcement & homeland security).

It was not surprising to find a healthy small arms industry represented at LAAD. The Small Arms Factory from India displayed several of its products, including its own assault rifle, MAG and Carl Gustav weapons. FN displayed all its superb small arms products. Denel had some very interesting tools at hand; although this year we did not find the NTW-20. Rippel had a whole spectrum of sniper rifles in diverse calibers, along with Milkor. The Kalashnikov was also present in several exhibits from diverse countries that produce it under various designations.

The Indústria de Material Bélico do Brasil (IMBEL) is the soul of the small arms production effort in Brazil, commencing with pistol manufacturing that ranges from .45 and .40 calibers to the 9mm and .380 models, all in the traditional Colt lines. IMBEL has produced the Madsen m/46 in .45 caliber for the armed forces. The services have also taken delivery of the INA 953 SMG in .45 caliber, which is a modified Madsen m/46 with the bolt handle moved to the right side, and other improvements of the extractor and the ejector. The weapon weighs 7 lbs. 8 oz., and is fed by a 30-round magazine. The INA 953 differs very little externally from the Danish m/46, sporting the same folding wire stock and nut barrel. The standard Army rifle is the locally produced IMBEL LAR, which is simply the FN-FAL in caliber 7.62mm built under license as the M964. The LAR differs little from the Belgian model, a gas operated weapon using a tilting bolt mechanism.

The Army Technology Center (CTEX) gave us a look into the locally developed thermal sight riflescope designed for use with assault rifles or machine guns. Members of CTEX tells us that the equipment collects infrared radiation generated by heat-emitting objects, allowing night and day target sighting even in areas filled with smoke, dust or fog. The riflescope weights 1.5 kg and has a fitting compatible with MIL-STD 1913 rails. The spectra band is 8-12µm and 320×240 microbolometer. The electromagnetic compatibility is to the MIL-STD 461.

The CTEX riflescope was mounted on a MD97D mockup. This rifle traces its lineage to the IMBEL MD-1 assault rifle first developed in 1983 in 5.56mm caliber. The MD-2 model came out in 1985 and entered service in limited numbers with the Brazilian Army. These designations have been a little confusing since a locally developed submachine gun in 9mm was also designated MD-1.

The MD-2 started as a simplified variant of the LAR (Brazilian made FAL) with a few features taken from the M16. The MD-3 refers to the MD-2 equipped with a folding stock, made of plastic. The MD-2 has been replaced in production by the MD97. This newer rifle does away with the tilting block locking system of the FAL, using instead a multi-lug, rotary-bolt type. The Model 97 L was adopted in 2000 by selected Army units, and the Model LC went to the 1st Special Forces Battalion for covert operations. The MD97L operates from the familiar gas piston system. It is equipped with a folding stock for use in close quarters fighting in urban situations, and the like. It uses standard US M16 magazines and compatible large capacity drums. The body of the weapon is made from aluminum to reduce the overall weight of the weapon. The weapon fires both 3-round bursts as well as full automatic and comes in a carbine sized variant as well known as the MD97LC.

Taurus is another successful Brazilian small arms industry, and it was also prominently present at LAAD with its line of pistols and carbines. The company displayed examples of its extensive line of police products, including the Taurus-FAMAE submachine gun. This SMG comes in two variants: the MT40, and the MT9. Since the SMG is optimized for police use, the MT40 is chambered in .40 caliber and the MT9 in 9mm, and it is no other than the SAF SMG. The firing cycle is rated to a high 1,200 rpm. The Taurus-FAMAE fires from the closed bolt, and is based on components of the SIG 540 series. It uses the blowback system and an unlocked bolt. A main difference between those examples produced in Brazil and those from Chile is the folding buttstock. The Brazilians prefer the FAL style model. The Taurus products have been very successful within the various local police departments.

The company also produces the CT40 and CT30 Carbines. These are variants of the SMGs mentioned above. The CT40 uses a 410 mm barrel, measuring 890 mm with butt extended and 630 mm with butt folded. The CT30 is a neat little weapon that uses the same 15 and 30-round magazines of the US M1 and M2 carbines. The barrel measures 260 mm in length and the weapon measures a handy 785 mm with stock fully extended and 535 mm with butt folded.

By Julio Montes

Last April 2007, Imbel leader General Cássio Cunha signed an MoU (Memorandum of Understanding) with Dr. Fritz Visser, CEO from Rippel Effect Weapon Systems (Pty) Limited, for the two companies to cooperate with the production of the highly successful Multiple Grenade Launcher (MGL) in Brazil. The MGL is designed to be simple, rugged and reliable, and has been well received by military establishments in South America. Rippel Effect (formerly Milkor Marketing) is a member of the Ngwane Defense Group of South Africa, and is the prime contractor for the 40mm multi-shot grenade launcher systems to more than 30 countries worldwide. It is reported that the company has sold more than 6,000 grenade launchers to various international clients within the last 18 months. Some 30,000 weapons have been produced, and the company recently concluded a MoU with Raas Intratech Pvt Ltd. of India as well.

In Brazil, André “MGL” Louw, from Rippel Effect Weapon Systems, allows us a look to the XRGL40, a redesigned MGL capable of accepting all the available 40mm low-velocity grenades, and most interesting equipped with a digital laser rangefinder, which basically allows precise shooting to the maximum range of the weapon (up to 1,000 meters). The XRGL40 uses the same semiautomatic revolver system with a drum magazine holding 6 grenades. The MGL traces its lineage to 1981, as one of the many innovations of Armscor during the counterinsurgency war in South Africa. The first production MGLs came out in 1983 under the designation of Y2. Other countries adopted the weapon under the name of MGL L6. Louw tells us that between other things, the XRGL40 allows for the use of longer grenades, providing for additional range and more lethal loads. The digital sight replaces the Trijicon Occluded Eye Gunsight (OEG), which had a 375 meter range.

The MGL perhaps traces its inspiration to the Hawk Engineering MM-1, a weapon of similar concept, with a drum magazine and revolver style operation, which was designed in the US at the end of the 1970s. The MM-1 was a simple multi-shot launcher, holding 12 ready grenades, and operated by a spring system. A few were supplied to the Long Range Reconnaissance Patrols (PRALs) in El Salvador, and another handful went to support companies to be used “ala Mk19 style” as a support weapon since, in theory, the launcher could be fired at a 144 rpm rate – but a more realistic 30 rpm was the norm – to a 350m range. The MM-1 had a hefty weight of 5.7 kg (12.57 lbs.) empty and 10 kg (22.05 lbs.) with all 12 grenades.

In contrast, the South African MGL has a 356mm (14.02 in.) length barrel, and a total length of 566mm (22.28 in.) with the butt retracted and 788mm (31.02 in.) with the stock extended. Its weight is 5.3 kg, (11.68 lbs.) and features a rotating drum style cylinder with 6 chambers.

MGL

In 1995, this author was the first one to publicly notice the Armscor MGL L6 (MGL Y2) in the hands of Mexican units. After the report was published with Jane’s in London, the Mexican newspaper La Jornada made its own inquiries, and – taking someone else’s assessment – alleged that the weapon was evidence that the military had violated the UN imposed arms embargo against South Africa. It was claimed that the weapons were acquired long before being operational in September 1994, and before the embargo was lifted in May 1994 – this assessment as a result of the sophistication in the operations of the MGL. The Mexican National Defense Secretariat (reportedly, and apparently, backed by the U.S. DoS) immediately denied the existence of the launcher in the ranks, which clashed badly with the truth, and the pictures. This only placed doubts on whether the embargo had indeed been violated.

Although being able to fire with accuracy requires some training, any soldier can easily operate the weapon. The MGL is a very simple, rugged and unsophisticated weapon that operates much like a shotgun, and sports a revolver-style magazine. The cylinder is spring-loaded and rotates automatically after each shot – again much like a revolver. The drum magazine is unlocked and pivoted to load 6 grenades, which could be launched to some 350 meters. It comes with an adjustable folding metal stock, and an IR-capable OEG red dot sight for precision fire up to 375 meters. In America, the USMC has taken delivery of the MGL as the M32, and it is also used by the military in Mexico, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and now Brazil. The Salvadorian PRALs could also do with a few MGLs to replace their obsolete MM-1s.

The original model has evolved in a family of weapons. Richard Potgieter, from Milkor, gave us a look into several of these models while in Brazil. The MGL Mk1, with an aluminum frame, came to the market in 1996. In 2004, the company presented the Mk-1S, with a stainless steel frame, and incorporating several Picatinny rails, and the Mk-1L, with a 140mm (5.51 in.) long cylinder with the capacity to fire a larger menu of grenades, including tear gas canisters. The information available indicates that the Mark-1S variant is a 3rd generation model with a 105mm (4.13 in.) chamber, and meets all NATO standards. The Mark-1S is an area type weapon with the capacity to deliver 40mm grenades to an efficient range of 375m at a rate of 6 rounds in three minutes. The chamber space allows accommodation of tear gas, rubber baton, and flash-bang grenades in addition to combat types. It functions under the same semiautomatic operations, using a spring revolver system, with a practical rate of fire of 24 rpm, and a theoretical rate of 120 rpm. It measures 740mm (29.13 in.) with butt extended, and 640mm (25.2 in.) with stock retracted. Its empty weight is 6.3 kg (13.89 lbs.) and it comes with the standard OEG sight. The Mark- 1L has been designed with a longer 140mm (5.51 in.) chamber space cylinder that allows the use of “smokeless” grenades in addition to those used in the Mk-1S. Its total length is 775mm (30.51 in.) with extended stock, and 680mm (26.77 in.) with it retracted, weighting 6.8 kg (14.99 lbs) empty. The MRGL is a multipurpose tactical weapon with interchangeable 105mm (4.13 in.) and 140mm (5.51 in.) drums, and having the standard 375 meters range with low velocity grenades, and up to 1,000 meters with medium velocity models.

A product improvement appeared in 2005 under the designation of MGL-140, with retail cost of $6,000 per unit. In October of that year, Milkor USA received an initial contract from the USMC for 9,000 units; these would be somewhat modified and supplied as the M32 MGL. This new variant has a minimum range of 30 meters and a maximum of 400 meters, and it is capable of firing the new Hellhound Hyper Lethal grenade. It comes with a “crane-style Vltor Modstock,” a “Sopmod Tan” color and a “weighted twostage trigger.” For now, the MGL is distributed among various USMC battalions in small numbers for field-testing and familiarization, with the first examples reaching combat units in Iraq in 2006. Milkor USA also offers the MGL-140 and the MGL-105 (MGL Mark-S), and all of them, including the M32, come with a M1A2 reflex sight standard (power provided by a AAA battery, for a 500 hours use).

The South African MGL simplicity, reliability, and effectiveness in harsh environments ranging from jungles to deserts have made it a favorite of sophisticated and not-so sophisticated armies and security forces alike.

By Julio A.Montes

On a South American TV station, there was a preview of “El Golpe,” a Spanish documentary from the History Channel on the Argentinean Coup of the 70s. A wheeled gun truck was shown supporting troops storming an installation. Although the footage suggested that the vehicle was part of the Argentinean Army, the shot wasactually a self-propelled M55A2 system of the Salvadoran National Guard during the conflict in that country, and certainly not a participant of the Argentinean coup.

There have been few tracked vehicles in service with the armed forces of El Salvador. The first tracked armored vehicles acquired by the Salvadoran military consisted of a handful of CV-33 Ansaldos acquired in Italy around 1937, which oddly enough ended up in the hands of the National Police after a failed coup against General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez. These were followed by eight M3A1s supplied as part of Lend-Lease by the US in 1944, which continued to operate well into the 1970s. In 1978, the Salvadoran Army purchased 27 Woodmaster tractors in Augusta, Georgia, using funds from the Agricultural Ministry. These were no other than discontinued M114 vehicles stripped of plates. Upon arrival to the Santo Tomas Port in Guatemala they were immediately escorted to the Armed Forces Workshop (Maestranza) in El Salvador, where 23 were later rebuilt into armored personnel transports. Although the new armored body provided much needed protection, the mechanical defects of the M114 “tractors” remained. These included an unreliable and breaking-down prone Chevrolet V8 gasoline engine of 160hp, and poor traction. Within a year, Maestranza had adapted the LDT-465IC diesel V6 of 140hp engines from the M35 trucks. This improved range but reduced maximum speed to some 50km/h. Nevertheless, the vehicles easily overheated, and this confined them to be used as reaction tools rather than their intended field supportive role.

When Maestranza started to rebuild the M114 tractors it concentrated in three basictypes. The initial tracked transport variant presented a simple box-like structure; even American advisers often confused this variant for modified M113. The gun carrier variant appeared more like a WWI tank, sporting several machine gun turrets or pedestals. Finally, the utility/ cargo variants sported an open bed and were used for diverse roles, including one modified as an amphibious assault/patrol vehicle.

Yugoslavian M55A2 Systems

In the early 1970s, the Army acquired some 32 M55A2 anti-aircraft gun systems, and distributed them between units around the country. Ilopango AFB received 12 M55A2 systems, but only one battery (with six pieces) was ever operational under the local control of the base Security Battalion. The M55A2 is basically the former Hispano-Suiza (HS) 630 mount, consisting of three 20mm HS-804 cannons mounted on a two wheeled undercarriage built under license from Switzerland by the Federal Supply Bureau Yugoslavia. The weapon weighs 970 kg when in firing position (without ammunition), and 1,110kg in traveling mode (with ammunition), and each gun is fed by a drum type magazine with 60-rounds. Rate of fire is claimed to be 700 rpm per gun, with an effective range of 1,200 meters in the anti-aircraft role. The maximum horizontal range is 5,500m, and the maximum vertical range is 4,000m. Although the system can fire from the traveling position, the usual method of employment is with the wheels raised from the ground and the system resting on a tripod. Elevation is accomplished by rotating a small disk located in front of the gunner’s seat; maximum elevation is +83 degrees with a minimum depression of -5 degrees. This capacity proved vital during the civil war since the system was employed against guerrilla attacks, and not against the intended air threat. A fireselector (single-automatic) is conveniently located under the gunner’s seat. The guns can traverse 360 degrees, but it would be difficult to keep track of a high velocity, low-level target. Traverse is accomplished by rotating a crank on the left side of the gunner’s seat.

The Self Propelled Gun Carrier is Born

By 1978, Captain Oswaldo Marenco had developed a gun truck based on an International Harvester dump truck for the National Guard. This was later used to field the first M55A2 self-propelled system, and this was the system featured in the History Channel piece on Argentina over 28 years later. Marenco designed a simple box-like turret where a cage with two side plates welded and linked at the top by an overhead plate replaced the wheels from the undercarriage, and access to the turret was made possible through two small doors immediately behind of the gunner’s seat. The manual operations of the system remained unchanged, and the turret could rotate 360 degrees, but no provisions were made for optical sights or any other electronic or electrical assistance.

As the turret developed by Marenco allowed the standard M55A2 tripod to remain intact, when the time came to accommodate the weapon into the M114 utility/cargo this was accomplished simply by depressing the tripod legs to accommodate them into “hooks” inside the vehicle’s main body. Four tracked selfpropelled M114/M55A2s are known to have been built: Model-10012 was delivered to the Treasury Police, and later to Ilopango AFB, and Model-10016 to the National Guard.

In the late 1970s, officers of the 3rd Infantry Brigade requested the conversion of one of their MAN 630 trucks to a M55A2 self-propelled armored system. A larger turret was developed providing more protection than the previous designsand, in theory, the guns could be loaded from inside the cramped space of the turret. A pair of 90mm M67 RCLs were placed on top of the turret and were synchronized to the HS-804 cannons. The 20mm were actually used as spotting “rifles” for the RCLs. The HS-804 cannons could not be elevated more than +25 degrees. The system was later reported with the 5th Infantry Brigade.

Modernization is the Key

The M55A2 is a manually operated system. Although powerful, it cannot deal properly against even older generation fighters at low level. Nevertheless, there are advanced, computer and powered assisted variants of the M55 developed in Yugoslavia that could be used as a model to improve and modernize the Salvadoran pieces.

Such is the case of the M55A3B1, which uses the PANS-20/3 sight, good to engage air and ground targets. The sight helps to engage targets at a maximum range of 1,500m, moving at speeds up to 1,000 km/h. The M55A3 model has powered elevation and traverse provided by a 6kW petrol Wankel engine. This engine is mounted on the traversing mass alongside the gunner gunlayer. The M55A4B1 variant is even more advanced, with the Wankel engine moved beneath the gunner’s seat. The sight is a hydraulic servomechanism computing J171, which is basically an Italian-designed P- 56 model, allowing engagement of ground and air targets at a horizontal range of 2,500m. It is also feasible that the M55A2 system can be upgraded using Swiss GAIDO1 components.

Another alternative for the Salvadorans could consist in converting the triple mounts to lighter, single gun models, using components of the Yugoslavian M75/ 1, or the equivalent Oerlikon-Contraves GAI-BO1 model. An M-75/1 model equipped with a M73 reflex sight is a costeffective air defense and fire support weapon that can be easily accommodated on flat bed pickups such as the Humvee M1097.

French HS-404 Cannons

At the end of the war, the Salvadoran Armed Forces had at least 30 HS-404 20mm guns in storage. The cannons come from retired Ouragan planes since each fighter was equipped with four weapons. Although the fighters are no longer in service, the cannons can still be very useful. Lt. Col. Vicente Bolaños from the Cavalry Regiment indicated in early 1998 that a Cashuat had been modified as suggested, and in 1999, the Cavalry Regiment presented an upgraded Cashuat light armored vehicle equipped with a pintle-mounted HS- 404 cannon.

Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that the Salvadoran technicians posses the knowhow to develop a simple powered turret that could accommodate the gunner and firing mechanism for the gun. In the fighter-model, the cannon was belt fed, and linked to an ammunition box with 125 rounds. This same installation can be modified for mounting on a small turret, similar – at least in concept – to that opentopped model found in the German Wiesel AFV. Another example could be the older Swedish Hägglund and Söner HS-20 turret that mounted a HS-404 cannon in a cylindrical lightly armored encasement. Right: “New” AAA piece completed with HS404 cannons recycled from obsolete Ouragan fighter. (CCP via von Santos) The one-man turret was equipped with several periscopes, and a monocular sight of 8x magnification, along with an M18 external open sight for aerial engagements. A machine gun pod was provided later. The turrets could be mounted on the surviving UR-416 armored vehicles.

The HS-404 can be used to replace or complement the M29 cannons used by the Salvadoran Navy as well. For now, the sailors have developed a mount – based on the Mk-68 models – to adapt two MGs. The same pedestal could accommodate the HS-404 on patrol boats or on flatbed vehicles (Cashuat AFV or similar).

Around 2002, Maestranza developed a manually operated air defense piece with two of the HS-404 cannons, and an undercarriage inspired on the M55A2 model. However, a major technical problem remained with the high rate of fire of the HS404. Finally, in 2005, a technical officer from Maestranza was able to overcomethe drawback, and the cycle of fire was reduced to a more appropriate rate for use against ground targets, and a battery of 6 double-gun pieces was finally fielded. In 2006, the successful development of the Salvadoran twin 20mm gun system inspired a newer, power operated, AAA piece housed in an armored tub. The powered assisted turret is lightly armored and open-topped. The system was then mounted on an elderly 6×6 M809 fiveton truck, modified with an armored body and a redesigned forward armored cabin (much similar to the M977). This new Mad-Max style self propelled system then was successfully field-tested, and is now ready for service. It was later verified that four machines have been assembled and ready…If only the US could supply the M977 with armored kit…

It is not clear whether the new AAA systems are able to properly track air targets since the joystick has to be perfectly synchronized to follow it rather than depending on high-speed of traverse and elevation for shooting. I believe that a better mounting to take inspiration from was the TCM-20 mount, which also uses the HS- 404 guns. Even today, the US could supply M41/M55 Quad .50 caliber multiple machine gun mount systems from Vietnam stocks (if there are still some leftover somewhere) to accommodate the HS-404 in place of the machine guns. These can be easily be accommodated on the Cashuat armored vehicle for something similar to the M16 half-track ADA system of WWII or more recent M3/ TCM20, and able to be used against ground targets and air targets while providing limited protection for the crew, gunner and ammunition. A Cashuat equipped with this weapon could be deployed for convoy escort, perimeter defense, airport defense, mobile air defense, and infantry support vehicle.

The self-propelled systems allowed the gunner to fire the weapon without exposing himself and under the protection of the turret. The main drawback was that once the 180 rounds of ready ammunition were used-up, the crew had to load the guns in the open. They were used mainly for perimeter and convoy security since the awesome firepower of the HS- 804 cannons could easily overwhelm any guerrilla attack. However, the Army failed to take advantage of this firepower and failed to develop an appropriate doctrine and tactics to use them. Today, the Salvadoran Army lacks any ADA self-propelled system since the International Harvester gun truck was dismantled in 1988, and the modified M114 and MAN truck were retired from service in 1992.

During the battle of Najaf in mid 2004, a Salvadoran patrol was trapped until it ran out of ammunition; after much pleading to their Spanish HQ, four BMR/VECs were dispatched to help, arriving just on time to find the trapped Salvadoran unit engaged in a hand-to-hand struggle for their lives. The incident highlighted the need for counting on its own armored support. It is important to remember that out of all our allies in Latin America, the Salvadorans are the only ones that have retained soldiers in Iraq, fighting side-byside with our US forces. Salvadoran troops in Iraq have finally been equipped with several M1114 up-armored vehicles for in-theater operations. Salvadoran Cuscatlán Battalion soldiers in Iraq have been recipients of US medals for valor when defending US officials, and they have sustained casualties in the process. However, the promised 24 M1114 by the US to be delivered to the Cavalry Regiment back home have not materialized in 2007.

The Salvadoran Army deploys two gun trucks built at local workshops that are basically useless for anything other than parades. The upcoming platoon of four gun trucks being built now on the M809 trucks chassis and HS-404 guns will provide considerable firepower in a low-level conflict as long as the proper tactics and doctrines are developed for their use. Until the formal introduction of the “new” self-propelled systems, the four tracked and two wheeled M55A2 ADA systems deployed between 1979 and 1992, remain as the most powerful support vehicles ever assembled in El Salvador.